Abstract
Risk for psychosis begins to accumulate as early as the fetal period through exposure to obstetric complications like fetal hypoxia, maternal stress, and prenatal infection. Stressors in the postnatal period, such as childhood trauma, peer victimization, and neighborhood-level adversity, further increase susceptibility for psychosis. Cognitive difficulties are among the first symptoms to emerge in individuals who go on to develop a psychotic disorder. We review the relationship between pre-, perinatal, and early childhood adversities and cognitive outcomes in individuals with psychosis. Current evidence shows that the aforementioned environmental risk factors may be linked to lower overall intelligence and executive dysfunction, beginning in the premorbid period and persisting into adulthood in individuals with psychosis. It is likely that early life stress contributes to cognitive difficulties in psychosis through dysregulation of the body’s response to stress, causing changes such as increased cortisol levels and chronic immune activation, which can negatively impact neurodevelopment. Intersectional aspects of identity (e.g., sex/gender, race/ethnicity), as well as gene–environment interactions, likely inform the developmental cascade to cognitive difficulties throughout the course of psychotic disorders and are reviewed below. Prospective studies of birth cohorts will serve to further clarify the relationship between early-life environmental risk factors and cognitive outcomes in the developmental course of psychotic disorders. Specific methodological recommendations are provided for future research.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aas M, Dazzan P, Fisher HL et al (2011) Childhood trauma and cognitive function in first-episode affective and non-affective psychosis. Schizophr Res 129:12–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.03.017
Aas M, Djurovic S, Athanasiu L et al (2012) Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism, childhood trauma, and cognition in patients with psychotic disorders. Schizophr Bull 38:15–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbr113
Anastario M, Salafia CM, Fitzmaurice G, Goldstein JM (2012) Impact of fetal versus perinatal hypoxia on sex differences in childhood outcomes: developmental timing matters. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 47:455–464. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-011-0353-0
Anglin DM, Lighty Q, Greenspoon M, Ellman LM (2014) Racial discrimination is associated with distressing subthreshold positive psychotic symptoms among US urban ethnic minority young adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 49:1545–1555. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-014-0870-8
Anglin DM, Ereshefsky S, Klaunig MJ et al (2021) From womb to neighborhood: a racial analysis of social determinants of psychosis in the United States. Am J Psychiatry 178:599–610. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.20071091
Ayesa-Arriola R, Setién-Suero E, Marques-Feixa L et al (2020) The synergetic effect of childhood trauma and recent stressful events in psychosis: associated neurocognitive dysfunction. Acta Psychiatr Scand 141:43–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13114
Badcock JC, Dragović M, Waters FAV, Jablensky A (2005) Dimensions of intelligence in schizophrenia: evidence from patients with preserved, deteriorated and compromised intellect. J Psychiatr Res 39(1):11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2004.05.002
Baldwin JR, Reuben A, Newbury JB, Danese A (2019) Agreement between prospective and retrospective measures of childhood maltreatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiat 76:584–593. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0097
Begemann MJH, Heringa SM, Sommer IEC (2016) Childhood trauma as a neglected factor in psychotic experiences and cognitive functioning. JAMA Psychiat 73:875. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0924
Bernstein DP, Fink L, Handelsman L et al (1994) Initial reliability and validity of a new retrospective measure of child abuse and neglect. Am J Psychiatry 151:1132–1136. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.151.8.1132
Berthelot N, Paccalet T, Gilbert E et al (2015) Childhood abuse and neglect may induce deficits in cognitive precursors of psychosis in high-risk children. J Psychiatry Neurosci 40:336–343. https://doi.org/10.1503/jpn.140211
Beydoun H, Saftlas AF (2008) Physical and mental health outcomes of prenatal maternal stress in human and animal studies: a review of recent evidence. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 22:438–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3016.2008.00951.x
Bhat A, Reed SD, Unützer J (2017) The obstetrician-gynecologist’s role in detecting, preventing, and treating depression. Obstet Gynecol 129:157–163. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000001809
Blomström Å, Karlsson H, Gardner R et al (2016) Associations between maternal infection during pregnancy, childhood infections, and the risk of subsequent psychotic disorder--a Swedish cohort study of nearly 2 million individuals. Schizophr Bull 42:125–133. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbv112
Bordeleau M, Fernández de Cossío L, Chakravarty MM, Tremblay M-È (2020) From maternal diet to neurodevelopmental disorders: a story of neuroinflammation. Front Cell Neurosci 14:612705. https://doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2020.612705
Bortolato B, Miskowiak KW, Köhler CA et al (2015) Cognitive dysfunction in bipolar disorder and schizophrenia: a systematic review of meta-analyses. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 11:3111–3125
Bremner JD, Randall P, Scott TM et al (1995) Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood abuse. Psychiatry Res 59:97–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(95)02800-5
Bremner JD, Randall P, Vermetten E et al (1997) Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse--a preliminary report. Biol Psychiatry 41:23–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(96)00162-x
Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E et al (2003) MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 160:924–932. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.924
Bronson SL, Bale TL (2016) The placenta as a mediator of stress effects on neurodevelopmental reprogramming. Neuropsychopharmacology 41:207–218. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.231
Brouwers EPM, van Baar AL, Pop VJM (2001) Maternal anxiety during pregnancy and subsequent infant development. Infant Behav Dev 24:95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(01)00062-5
Brown AS (2011) The environment and susceptibility to schizophrenia. Prog Neurobiol 93:23–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.09.003
Brown AS, Derkits EJ (2010) Prenatal infection and schizophrenia: a review of epidemiologic and translational studies. Am J Psychiatry 167:261–280. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09030361
Brown AS, Susser ES (2008) Prenatal nutritional deficiency and risk of adult schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 34:1054–1063. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn096
Brown AS, Cohen P, Harkavy-Friedman J et al (2001) A.E. Bennett research award. Prenatal rubella, premorbid abnormalities, and adult schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 49:473–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01068-x
Brown AS, Hooton J, Schaefer CA et al (2004) Elevated maternal interleukin-8 levels and risk of schizophrenia in adult offspring. Am J Psychiatry 161:889–895. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.5.889
Brown AS, Bottiglieri T, Schaefer CA et al (2007) Elevated prenatal homocysteine levels as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 64:31–39. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.1.31
Brown AS, Vinogradov S, Kremen WS et al (2009) Prenatal exposure to maternal infection and executive dysfunction in adult schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 166:683–690. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08010089
Brown AS, Vinogradov S, Kremen WS et al (2011) Association of maternal genital and reproductive infections with verbal memory and motor deficits in adult schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 188:179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.04.020
Brunet E, Sarfati Y, Hardy-Baylé M-C (2003) Reasoning about physical causality and other’s intentions in schizophrenia. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 8:129–139. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546800244000256
Buka SL, Tsuang MT, Torrey EF et al (2001) Maternal cytokine levels during pregnancy and adult psychosis. Brain Behav Immun 15:411–420. https://doi.org/10.1006/brbi.2001.0644
Buss C, Davis EP, Hobel CJ, Sandman CA (2011) Maternal pregnancy-specific anxiety is associated with child executive function at 6–9 years age. Stress 14:665–676. https://doi.org/10.3109/10253890.2011.623250
Camerota M, Willoughby MT, Cox M et al (2015) Executive function in low birth weight preschoolers: the moderating effect of parenting. J Abnorm Child Psychol 43:1551–1562. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0032-9
Campbell C, Barrett S, Shannon C et al (2013) The relationship between childhood trauma and neuropsychological functioning in first episode psychosis. Psychosis 5:48–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/17522439.2012.660982
Canever L, Alves CSV, Mastella G et al (2018) The evaluation of folic acid-deficient or folic acid-supplemented diet in the gestational phase of female rats and in their adult offspring subjected to an animal model of schizophrenia. Mol Neurobiol 55:2301–2319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12035-017-0493-7
Cannon TD, Mednick SA, Parnas J (1989) Genetic and perinatal determinants of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:883–889. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810100025005
Cannon TD, Bearden CE, Hollister JM et al (2000) Childhood cognitive functioning in schizophrenia patients and their unaffected siblings: a prospective cohort study. Schizophr Bull 26:379–393. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033460
Cannon M, Jones PB, Murray RM (2002a) Obstetric complications and schizophrenia: historical and meta-analytic review. AJP 159:1080–1092. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.7.1080
Cannon TD, van Erp TGM, Rosso IM et al (2002b) Fetal hypoxia and structural brain abnormalities in schizophrenic patients, their siblings, and controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59:35–41. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.59.1.35
Cannon TD, Yolken R, Buka S et al (2008) Decreased neurotrophic response to birth hypoxia in the etiology of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 64:797–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.04.012
Carrilho CG, Cougo SS, Bombassaro T et al (2019) Early trauma and cognitive functions of patients with schizophrenia. Front Psych 10:261. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00261
Charil A, Laplante DP, Vaillancourt C, King S (2010) Prenatal stress and brain development. Brain Res Rev 65:56–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.06.002
Clifford A, Lang L, Chen R et al (2016) Exposure to air pollution and cognitive functioning across the life course – a systematic literature review. Environ Res 147:383–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.01.018
Collins MA, Chung Y, Addington J et al (2021) Discriminatory experiences predict neuroanatomical changes and anxiety among healthy individuals and those at clinical high risk for psychosis. Neuroimage Clin 31:102757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102757
Comacchio C, Lasalvia A, Ruggeri M (2019) Current evidence of childhood traumatic experiences in psychosis - focus on gender differences. Psychiatry Res 281:112507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112507
Corcoran M, Hawkins EL, O’Hora D et al (2020) Are working memory and glutamate concentrations involved in early-life stress and severity of psychosis? Brain Behav 10:e01616. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.1616
Cortes Hidalgo AP, Neumann A, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ et al (2020) Prenatal maternal stress and child IQ. Child Dev 91:347–365. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13177
Cosgrave J, Purple RJ, Haines R et al (2021) Do environmental risk factors for the development of psychosis distribute differently across dimensionally assessed psychotic experiences? Transl Psychiatry 11:1–13
Coussons-Read ME (2013) Effects of prenatal stress on pregnancy and human development: mechanisms and pathways. Obstet Med 6:52–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753495X12473751
Czepielewski LS, Alliende LM, Castañeda CP et al (2021) Effects of socioeconomic status in cognition of people with schizophrenia: results from a Latin American collaboration network with 1175 subjects. Psychol Med. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721002403
Danese A, Moffitt TE, Arseneault L et al (2017) The origins of cognitive deficits in victimized children: implications for neuroscientists and clinicians. Am J Psychiatry 174:349–361. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.16030333
Dauvermann MR, Donohoe G (2019) The role of childhood trauma in cognitive performance in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder – a systematic review. Schizophr Res Cogn 16:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2018.11.001
Davies C, Segre G, Estradé A et al (2020) Prenatal and perinatal risk and protective factors for psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 7:399–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30057-2
Dominguez TP, Dunkel-Schetter C, Glynn LM et al (2008) Racial differences in birth outcomes: the role of general, pregnancy, and racism stress. Health Psychol 27:194–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.194
Egan MF, Goldberg TE, Kolachana BS et al (2001) Effect of COMT Val108/158 met genotype on frontal lobe function and risk for schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:6917–6922. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.111134598
Eide MG, Moster D, Irgens LM et al (2013) Degree of fetal growth restriction associated with schizophrenia risk in a national cohort. Psychol Med 43:2057–2066. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171200267X
Ellman LM, Cannon TD (2008) Environmental pre- and perinatal influences. In: Mueser KT, Jeste DV (eds) The clinical handbook of schizophrenia. Guilford Press, New York, pp 65–73
Ellman LM, Susser ES (2009) The promise of epidemiologic studies: neuroimmune mechanisms in the etiologies of brain disorders. Neuron 64:25–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.024
Ellman LM, Huttunen M, Lönnqvist J, Cannon TD (2007) The effects of genetic liability for schizophrenia and maternal smoking during pregnancy on obstetric complications. Schizophr Res 93:229–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.03.004
Ellman LM, Yolken RH, Buka SL et al (2009) Cognitive functioning prior to the onset of psychosis: the role of Fetal exposure to serologically determined influenza infection. Biol Psychiatry 65:1040–1047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.015
Ellman LM, Vinogradov S, Kremen WS et al (2012) Low maternal hemoglobin during pregnancy and diminished neuromotor and neurocognitive performance in offspring with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 138:81–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2012.04.008
Ellman LM, Murphy SK, Maxwell SD (2018) Pre- and perinatal risk factors for serious mental disorders: ethical considerations in prevention and prediction efforts. J Ethics Mental Health 10:1–14
Ellman LM, Murphy SK, Maxwell SD et al (2019) Maternal cortisol during pregnancy and offspring schizophrenia: influence of fetal sex and timing of exposure. Schizophr Res 213:15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.07.002
Engman M-L, Adolfsson I, Lewensohn-Fuchs I et al (2008) Neuropsychologic outcomes in children with neonatal herpes encephalitis. Pediatr Neurol 38:398–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2008.02.005
Ered A, Ellman LM (2019) Specificity of childhood trauma type and attenuated positive symptoms in a non-clinical sample. J Clin Med 8:1537. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8101537
Estes ML, McAllister AK (2016) Maternal immune activation: implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Science 353:772–777. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aag3194
Eyles DW (2021) How do established developmental risk-factors for schizophrenia change the way the brain develops? Transl Psychiatry 11:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01273-2
Feola B, Dougherty LR, Riggins T, Bolger DJ (2020) Prefrontal cortical thickness mediates the association between cortisol reactivity and executive function in childhood. Neuropsychologia 148:107636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107636
Fett A-KJ, Viechtbauer W, Dominguez M-G et al (2011) The relationship between neurocognition and social cognition with functional outcomes in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35:573–588. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.001
Fineberg AM, Ellman LM (2013) Inflammatory cytokines and neurological and neurocognitive alterations in the course of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 73:951–966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.01.001
Fineberg AM, Ellman LM, Buka S et al (2013) Decreased birth weight in psychosis: influence of prenatal exposure to serologically determined influenza and hypoxia. Schizophr Bull 39:1037–1044. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs084
Fineberg AM, Ellman LM, Schaefer CA et al (2016) Fetal exposure to maternal stress and risk for schizophrenia spectrum disorders among offspring: differential influences of fetal sex. Psychiatry Res 236:91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.026
Freedman D, Bao Y, Kremen WS et al (2013) Birth weight and neurocognition in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Bull 39:592–600. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs008
Freedman R, Hunter SK, Law AJ et al (2021) Choline, folic acid, vitamin D, and fetal brain development in the psychosis spectrum. Schizophr Res S0920-9964(21):00128–00126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2021.03.008
Ghassabian A, Albert PS, Hornig M et al (2018) Gestational cytokine concentrations and neurocognitive development at 7 years. Transl Psychiatry 8:64. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-018-0112-z
Gibson LE, Cooper S, Reeves LE et al (2017) The association between traumatic life events and psychological symptoms from a conservative, transdiagnostic perspective. Psychiatry Res 252:70–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.02.047
Gibson LE, Cooper S, Reeves LE et al (2019) Attentional biases and trauma status: do psychotic-like experiences matter? Psychol Trauma 11:300–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000380
Gillespie SL, Porter K, Christian LM (2016) Adaptation of the inflammatory immune response across pregnancy and postpartum in black and White women. J Reprod Immunol 114:27–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jri.2016.02.001
Giovanoli S, Notter T, Richetto J et al (2015) Late prenatal immune activation causes hippocampal deficits in the absence of persistent inflammation across aging. J Neuroinflammation 12:221. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-015-0437-y
Giscombé CL, Lobel M (2005) Explaining disproportionately high rates of adverse birth outcomes among African Americans: the impact of stress, racism, and related factors in pregnancy. Psychol Bull 131:662–683. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.5.662
Glynn LM, Schetter CD, Chicz-DeMet A et al (2007) Ethnic differences in adrenocorticotropic hormone, cortisol and corticotropin-releasing hormone during pregnancy. Peptides 28:1155–1161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2007.04.005
Golan HM, Lev V, Hallak M et al (2005) Specific neurodevelopmental damage in mice offspring following maternal inflammation during pregnancy. Neuropharmacology 48:903–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.12.023
Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Santangelo S et al (1994) Are schizophrenic men at higher risk for developmental deficits than schizophrenic women? Implications for adult neuropsychological functions. J Psychiatr Res 28:483–498. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-3956(94)90039-6
Goldstein G, Allen DN, Seaton BE (1998) A comparison of clustering solutions for cognitive heterogeneity in schizophrenia. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 4:353–362. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617798003531
Goldstein JM, Seidman LJ, Buka SL et al (2000) Impact of genetic vulnerability and hypoxia on overall intelligence by age 7 in offspring at high risk for schizophrenia compared with affective psychoses. Schizophr Bull 26:323–334. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033456
Goldstein JM, Cherkerzian S, Seidman LJ et al (2014) Prenatal maternal immune disruption and sex-dependent risk for psychoses. Psychol Med 44:3249–3261. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714000683
Green JG, McLaughlin KA, Berglund PA et al (2010) Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67:113–123. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186
Green MJ, Chia T-Y, Cairns MJ et al (2014) Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) genotype moderates the effects of childhood trauma on cognition and symptoms in schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 49:43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.018
Green MJ, Raudino A, Cairns MJ et al (2015) Do common genotypes of FK506 binding protein 5 (FKBP5) moderate the effects of childhood maltreatment on cognition in schizophrenia and healthy controls? J Psychiatr Res 70:9–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.07.019
Grizenko N, Fortier M-È, Gaudreau-Simard M et al (2015) The effect of maternal stress during pregnancy on IQ and ADHD symptomatology. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 24:92–99
Gutteling BM, de Weerth C, Zandbelt N et al (2006) Does maternal prenatal stress adversely affect the child’s learning and memory at age six? J Abnorm Child Psychol 34:787–796. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9054-7
Haager D, Vaughn S (1995) Parent, teacher, peer, and self-reports of the social competence of students with learning disabilities. J Learn Disabil 28:205–215, 231. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949502800403
Han VX, Patel S, Jones HF et al (2021) Maternal acute and chronic inflammation in pregnancy is associated with common neurodevelopmental disorders. Transl Psychiatry 11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01198-w
Haukvik UK, Rimol LM, Roddey JC et al (2014) Normal birth weight variation is related to cortical morphology across the psychosis spectrum. Schizophr Bull 40:410–419. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt005
Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Dunning DL (2009) Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Dev Sci 12:F9–F15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x
Howes OD, McCutcheon R (2017) Inflammation and the neural diathesis-stress hypothesis of schizophrenia: a reconceptualization. Transl Psychiatry 7:e1024. https://doi.org/10.1038/tp.2016.278
Huizink AC, de Rooij SR (2018) Prenatal stress and models explaining risk for psychopathology revisited: generic vulnerability and divergent pathways. Dev Psychopathol 30:1041–1062. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000354
Huizink AC, Mulder EJH (2006) Maternal smoking, drinking or cannabis use during pregnancy and neurobehavioral and cognitive functioning in human offspring. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30:24–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.005
Huizink AC, Mulder EJH, Buitelaar JK (2004) Prenatal stress and risk for psychopathology: specific effects or induction of general susceptibility. Psychol Bull 130:115–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.115
Hunter A, Murray R, Asher L, Leonardi-Bee J (2020) The effects of tobacco smoking, and prenatal tobacco smoke exposure, on risk of schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nicotine Tob Res 22:3–10. https://doi.org/10.1093/ntr/nty160
Hunter SK, Hoffman MC, D’Alessandro A et al (2021) Male fetus susceptibility to maternal inflammation: c-reactive protein and brain development. Psychol Med 51:450–459. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719003313
Jiang H, Xu L, Shao L et al (2016) Maternal infection during pregnancy and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Brain Behav Immun 58:165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2016.06.005
Johnson D, Policelli J, Li M et al (2021) Associations of early-life threat and deprivation with executive functioning in childhood and adolescence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr 175:e212511. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2511
Jones SL, Dufoix R, Laplante DP et al (2019) Larger amygdala volume mediates the association between prenatal maternal stress and higher levels of externalizing behaviors: sex specific effects in project ice storm. Front Hum Neurosci 13:144. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00144
Karlsson H, Dalman C (2020) Epidemiological studies of prenatal and childhood infection and schizophrenia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 44:35–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2018_87
Kasznia J, Pytel A, Stańczykiewicz B et al (2021) Adverse childhood experiences and neurocognition in schizophrenia Spectrum disorders: age at first exposure and multiplicity matter. Front Psych 12:684099. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.684099
Khandaker GM, Barnett JH, White IR, Jones PB (2011) A quantitative meta-analysis of population-based studies of premorbid intelligence and schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 132:220–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2011.06.017
Kilian S, Asmal L, Chiliza B et al (2018) Childhood adversity and cognitive function in schizophrenia spectrum disorders and healthy controls: evidence for an association between neglect and social cognition. Psychol Med 48:2186–2193. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717003671
Kim-Fine S, Regnault TRH, Lee JS et al (2012) Male gender promotes an increased inflammatory response to lipopolysaccharide in umbilical vein blood. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 25:2470–2474. https://doi.org/10.3109/14767058.2012.684165
Kingston D, McDonald S, Austin M-P, Tough S (2015) Association between prenatal and postnatal psychological distress and toddler cognitive development: a systematic review. PLoS One 10:e0126929. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0126929
Ko T-J, Tsai L-Y, Chu L-C et al (2014) Parental smoking during pregnancy and its association with low birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm birth offspring: a birth cohort study. Pediatr Neonatol 55:20–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2013.05.005
Koenen KC, Moffitt TE, Roberts AL et al (2009) Childhood IQ and adult mental disorders: a test of the cognitive reserve hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry 166:50–57. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030343
Krabbendam L, van Os J (2005) Schizophrenia and urbanicity: a major environmental influence—conditional on genetic risk. Schizophr Bull 31:795–799. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbi060
Kremen WS, Buka SL, Seidman LJ et al (1998) IQ decline during childhood and adult psychotic symptoms in a community sample: a 19-year longitudinal study. AJP 155:672–677. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.5.672
Kremen WS, Vinogradov S, Poole JH et al (2010) Cognitive decline in schizophrenia from childhood to midlife: a 33-year longitudinal birth cohort study. Schizophr Res 118:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2010.01.009
Ku BS, Pauselli L, Manseau M, Compton MT (2020) Neighborhood-level predictors of age at onset and duration of untreated psychosis in first-episode psychotic disorders. Schizophr Res 218:247–254. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.12.036
Lafortune S, Laplante DP, Elgbeili G et al (2021) Effect of natural disaster-related prenatal maternal stress on child development and health: a meta-analytic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18:8332. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168332
Laplante DP, Brunet A, Schmitz N et al (2008) Project ice storm: prenatal maternal stress affects cognitive and linguistic functioning in 5 1/2-year-old children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 47:1063–1072. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31817eec80
Laplante DP, Hart KJ, O’Hara MW et al (2018) Prenatal maternal stress is associated with toddler cognitive functioning: the Iowa Flood Study. Early Hum Dev 116:84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2017.11.012
Lataster T, van Os J, Drukker M et al (2006) Childhood victimisation and developmental expression of non-clinical delusional ideation and hallucinatory experiences: victimisation and non-clinical psychotic experiences. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 41:423–428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-006-0060-4
LeWinn KZ, Stroud LR, Molnar BE et al (2009) Elevated maternal cortisol levels during pregnancy are associated with reduced childhood IQ. Int J Epidemiol 38:1700–1710. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyp200
Lewis R (2004) Should cognitive deficit be a diagnostic criterion for schizophrenia? J Psychiatry Neurosci 29:102–113
Lewis G, Dykxhoorn J, Karlsson H et al (2020) Assessment of the role of IQ in associations between population density and deprivation and nonaffective psychosis. JAMA Psychiat 77:729–736. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0103
Lim L, Radua J, Rubia K (2014) Gray matter abnormalities in childhood maltreatment: a voxel-wise meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 171:854–863. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2014.13101427
Lipner E, Murphy SK, Ellman LM (2019) Prenatal maternal stress and the cascade of risk to schizophrenia spectrum disorders in offspring. Curr Psychiatry Rep 21:99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-019-1085-1
Liu Y, Mendonça M, Cannon M et al (2020) Testing the independent and joint contribution of exposure to neurodevelopmental adversity and childhood trauma to risk of psychotic experiences in adulthood. Schizophr Bull 47:776–784. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbaa174
Lobel M, Cannella DL, Graham JE et al (2008) Pregnancy-specific stress, prenatal health behaviors, and birth outcomes. Health Psychol 27:604–615. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013242
Mareckova K, Marecek R, Andryskova L et al (2021) Impact of prenatal stress on amygdala anatomy in young adulthood: timing and location matter. Biol Psychiatr Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.07.009
Markham JA, Taylor AR, Taylor SB et al (2010) Characterization of the cognitive impairments induced by prenatal exposure to stress in the rat. Front Behav Neurosci 4:173. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2010.00173
Martin KV, Sucharew H, Dietrich KN et al (2021) Co-exposure to manganese and lead and pediatric neurocognition in East Liverpool, Ohio. Environ Res 202:111644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111644
Mathewson KJ, Chow CHT, Dobson KG et al (2017) Mental health of extremely low birth weight survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 143:347–383. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000091
McCabe KL, Maloney EA, Stain HJ et al (2012) Relationship between childhood adversity and clinical and cognitive features in schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 46:600–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.01.023
McGrath J, Saari K, Hakko H et al (2004) Vitamin D supplementation during the first year of life and risk of schizophrenia: a Finnish birth cohort study. Schizophr Res 67:237–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2003.08.005
McGrath J, Brown A, St Clair D (2011) Prevention and schizophrenia--the role of dietary factors. Schizophr Bull 37:272–283. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq121
McIntosh R, Vaughn S, Schumm JS et al (1993) Observations of students with learning disabilities in general education classrooms. Except Child 60:249–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299406000306
McIntosh AM, Holmes S, Gleeson S et al (2002) Maternal recall bias, obstetric history and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 181:520–525. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.181.6.520
McLaughlin KA, Sheridan MA (2016) Beyond cumulative risk: a dimensional approach to childhood adversity. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 25:239–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416655883
Medeiros W, Torro-Alves N, Malloy-Diniz LF, Minervino CM (2016) Executive functions in children who experience bullying situations. Front Psychol 7:1197. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01197
Mednick SA, Machon RA, Huttunen MO, Bonett D (1988) Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45:189–192. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800260109013
Merced-Nieves FM, Aguiar A, Dzwilewski KLC et al (2020) Association of prenatal maternal perceived stress with a sexually dimorphic measure of cognition in 4.5-month-old infants. Neurotoxicol Teratol 77:106850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ntt.2019.106850
Meyer U (2014) Prenatal poly(i:C) exposure and other developmental immune activation models in rodent systems. Biol Psychiatry 75:307–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.07.011
Meyer U, Engler A, Weber L et al (2008) Preliminary evidence for a modulation of fetal dopaminergic development by maternal immune activation during pregnancy. Neuroscience 154:701–709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.04.031
Meyer-Lindenberg A, Nichols T, Callicott JH et al (2006) Impact of complex genetic variation in COMT on human brain function. Mol Psychiatry 11:867–877. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001860
Mhaouty-Kodja S, Belzunces LP, Canivenc M-C et al (2018) Impairment of learning and memory performances induced by BPA: evidences from the literature of a MoA mediated through an ED. Mol Cell Endocrinol 475:54–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2018.03.017
Mittal VA, Ellman LM, Cannon TD (2008) Gene-environment interaction and covariation in schizophrenia: the role of obstetric complications. Schizophr Bull 34:1083–1094. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbn080
Mollon J, Reichenberg A (2018) Cognitive development prior to onset of psychosis. Psychol Med 48:392–403. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717001970
Mondelli V, Dazzan P, Hepgul N et al (2010) Abnormal cortisol levels during the day and cortisol awakening response in first-episode psychosis: the role of stress and of antipsychotic treatment. Schizophr Res 116:234–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2009.08.013
Mørkved N, Johnsen E, Kroken RA et al (2020) Does childhood trauma influence cognitive functioning in schizophrenia? The association of childhood trauma and cognition in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res Cogn 21:100179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scog.2020.100179
Müller N, Weidinger E, Leitner B, Schwarz MJ (2015) The role of inflammation in schizophrenia. Front Neurosci 9:372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00372
Murphy SK, Fineberg AM, Maxwell SD et al (2017) Maternal infection and stress during pregnancy and depressive symptoms in adolescent offspring. Psychiatry Res 257:102–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.07.025
Myin-Germeys I, van Os J, Schwartz JE et al (2001) Emotional reactivity to daily life stress in psychosis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 58:1137–1144. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.58.12.1137
Naeye RL, Peters EC (1987) Antenatal hypoxia and low IQ values. Obstet Anesth Dig 7:98
Negrón-Oyarzo I, Lara-Vásquez A, Palacios-García I et al (2016) Schizophrenia and reelin: a model based on prenatal stress to study epigenetics, brain development and behavior. Biol Res 49:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40659-016-0076-5
Neill E, Tan EJ, Toh WL et al (2020) Examining which factors influence age of onset in males and females with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 223:265–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2020.08.011
Nettis MA, Pariante CM, Mondelli V (2020) Early-life adversity, systemic inflammation and comorbid physical and psychiatric illnesses of adult life. In: Khandaker GM, Meyer U, Jones PB (eds) Neuroinflammation and schizophrenia. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 207–225
Newell-Morris LL, Fahrenbruch CE, Sackett GP (1989) Prenatal psychological stress, dermatoglyphic asymmetry and pregnancy outcome in the pigtailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina). NEO 56:61–75. https://doi.org/10.1159/000243104
Oh H, Yang LH, Anglin DM, DeVylder JE (2014) Perceived discrimination and psychotic experiences across multiple ethnic groups in the United States. Schizophr Res 157:259–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.04.036
Paquin V, Lapierre M, Veru F, King S (2021) Early environmental upheaval and the risk for schizophrenia. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 17:285–311. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-081219-103805
Poletti S, Mazza E, Bollettini I et al (2015) Adverse childhood experiences influence white matter microstructure in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 234:35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.08.003
Pugliese V, Bruni A, Carbone EA et al (2019) Maternal stress, prenatal medical illnesses and obstetric complications: Risk factors for schizophrenia spectrum disorder, bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder. Psychiatry Res 271:23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2018.11.023
Quidé Y, O’Reilly N, Watkeys OJ et al (2018) Effects of childhood trauma on left inferior frontal gyrus function during response inhibition across psychotic disorders. Psychol Med 48:1454–1463. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717002884
Quinn PD, Rickert ME, Weibull CE et al (2017) Association between maternal smoking during pregnancy and severe mental illness in offspring. JAMA Psychiat 74:589–596. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0456
Ramsay H, Surcel H-M, Björnholm L et al (2021) Associations between maternal prenatal C-reactive protein and risk factors for psychosis in adolescent offspring: findings from the northern Finland birth cohort 1986. Schizophr Bull 47:766–775. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbaa152
Rasetti R, Mattay VS, Wiedholz LM et al (2009) Evidence that altered amygdala activity in schizophrenia is related to clinical state and not genetic risk. Am J Psychiatry 166:216–225. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08020261
Rauschenberg C, van Os J, Goedhart M et al (2021) Bullying victimization and stress sensitivity in help-seeking youth: findings from an experience sampling study. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:591–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01540-5
Raymond C, Marin M-F, Majeur D, Lupien S (2018) Early child adversity and psychopathology in adulthood: HPA axis and cognitive dysregulations as potential mechanisms. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 85:152–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.07.015
Read J, Perry BD, Moskowitz A, Connolly J (2001) The contribution of early traumatic events to schizophrenia in some patients: a traumagenic neurodevelopmental model. Psychiatry 64:319–345. https://doi.org/10.1521/psyc.64.4.319.18602
Reichenberg A, Caspi A, Harrington H et al (2010) Static and dynamic cognitive deficits in childhood preceding adult schizophrenia: a 30-year study. Am J Psychiatry 167:160–169. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09040574
Rosenthal A, Meyer MS, Mayo D et al (2020) Contributions of childhood trauma and atypical development to increased clinical symptoms and poor functioning in recent onset psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 14:755–761. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12931
Ruby E, Rothman K, Corcoran C et al (2017) Influence of early trauma on features of schizophrenia. Early Interv Psychiatry 11:322–333. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12239
Sacchi C, Marino C, Nosarti C et al (2020) Association of intrauterine growth restriction and small for gestational age status with childhood cognitive outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr 174:772–781. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1097
Samplin E, Ikuta T, Malhotra AK et al (2013) Sex differences in resilience to childhood maltreatment: effects of trauma history on hippocampal volume, general cognition and subclinical psychosis in healthy adults. J Psychiatr Res 47:1174–1179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.008
Sandman CA, Glynn LM, Davis EP (2013) Is there a viability-vulnerability tradeoff? Sex differences in fetal programming. J Psychosom Res 75:327–335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.07.009
Schaefer CA, Brown AS, Wyatt RJ et al (2000) Maternal prepregnant body mass and risk of schizophrenia in adult offspring. Schizophr Bull 26:275–286. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033452
Schalinski I, Teicher MH, Carolus AM, Rockstroh B (2018) Defining the impact of childhood adversities on cognitive deficits in psychosis: an exploratory analysis. Schizophr Res 192:351–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.05.014
Schreier A, Wolke D, Thomas K et al (2009) Prospective study of peer victimization in childhood and psychotic symptoms in a nonclinical population at age 12 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66:527–536. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.23
Scott JG, Matuschka L, Niemelä S et al (2018) Evidence of a causal relationship between smoking tobacco and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Front Psych 9:607. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00607
Seidman LJ, Buka SL, Goldstein JM et al (2000) The relationship of prenatal and perinatal complications to cognitive functioning at age 7 in the New England Cohorts of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Schizophr Bull 26:309–321. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033455
Shaikh M, Ellett L, Dutt A et al (2016) Perceived ethnic discrimination and persecutory paranoia in individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis. Psychiatry Res 241:309–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.05.006
Shannon C, Douse K, McCusker C et al (2011) The association between childhood trauma and memory functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 37:531–537. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbp096
Sideli L, Fisher HL, Russo M et al (2014) Failure to find association between childhood abuse and cognition in first-episode psychosis patients. Eur Psychiatry 29:32–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2013.02.006
Simanek AM, Meier HC (2015) Association between prenatal exposure to maternal infection and offspring mood disorders: a review of the literature. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 45:325–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2015.06.008
Smith SEP, Li J, Garbett K et al (2007) Maternal immune activation alters fetal brain development through interleukin-6. J Neurosci 27:10695–10702. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2178-07.2007
Stein MB, Koverola C, Hanna C et al (1997) Hippocampal volume in women victimized by childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Med 27:951–959. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291797005242
Sutherland S, Brunwasser SM (2018) Sex differences in vulnerability to prenatal stress: a review of the recent literature. Curr Psychiatry Rep 20:102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-018-0961-4
Teigset CM, Mohn C, Rund BR (2020) Perinatal complications and executive dysfunction in early-onset schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry 20:103. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02517-z
Torniainen M, Wegelius A, Tuulio-Henriksson A et al (2013) Both low birthweight and high birthweight are associated with cognitive impairment in persons with schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives. Psychol Med 43:2361–2367. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713000032
Üçok A, Kaya H, Uğurpala C et al (2015) History of childhood physical trauma is related to cognitive decline in individuals with ultra-high risk for psychosis. Schizophr Res 169:199–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2015.08.038
Ursini G, Punzi G, Chen Q et al (2018) Convergence of placenta biology and genetic risk for schizophrenia. Nat Med 24:792–801. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0021-y
Ursini G, Punzi G, Langworthy BW et al (2021) Placental genomic risk scores and early neurodevelopmental outcomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 118:e2019789118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2019789118
Van den Bergh BRH, van den Heuvel MI, Lahti M et al (2020) Prenatal developmental origins of behavior and mental health: the influence of maternal stress in pregnancy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 117:26–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.07.003
van Erp TGM, Saleh PA, Rosso IM et al (2002) Contributions of genetic risk and fetal hypoxia to hippocampal volume in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, their unaffected siblings, and healthy unrelated volunteers. AJP 159:1514–1520. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1514
van Nierop M, Viechtbauer W, Gunther N et al (2015) Childhood trauma is associated with a specific admixture of affective, anxiety, and psychosis symptoms cutting across traditional diagnostic boundaries. Psychol Med 45:1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714002372
van Os J, Marsman A, van Dam D et al (2017) Evidence that the impact of childhood trauma on IQ is substantial in controls, moderate in siblings, and absent in patients with psychotic disorder. Schizophr Bull 43:316–324. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw177
Varese F, Smeets F, Drukker M et al (2012) Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr Bull 38:661–671. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbs050
Vargas T, Lam PH, Azis M et al (2019) Childhood trauma and neurocognition in adults with psychotic disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull 45:1195–1208. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sby150
Velikonja T, Velthorst E, Zinberg J et al (2021) Childhood trauma and cognitive functioning in individuals at clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis. Dev Psychopathol 33:53–64. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457941900155X
Verdoux H, Geddes JR, Takei N et al (1997) Obstetric complications and age at onset in schizophrenia: an international collaborative meta-analysis of individual patient data. AJP 154:1220–1227. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.9.1220
Vidal PM, Pacheco R (2020) The cross-talk between the dopaminergic and the immune system involved in schizophrenia. Front Pharmacol 11:394. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2020.00394
Vlasova RM, Iosif AM, Ryan AM et al (2021) Maternal immune activation during pregnancy alters postnatal brain growth and cognitive development in nonhuman primate offspring. J Neurosci 41:9971–9987. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0378-21.2021
Walker E, Mittal V, Tessner K (2008) Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 4:189–216. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141248
Weickert TW, Goldberg TE, Gold JM, Bigelow LB, Egan MF, Weinberger DR (2000) Cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia displaying preserved and compromised intellect. Arch Gen Psychiatry 57(9):907–913. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.57.9.907
Weinstock M (2001) Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring. Prog Neurobiol 65:427–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0082(01)00018-1
Woodward ND, Heckers S (2015) Brain structure in neuropsychologically defined subgroups of schizophrenia and psychotic bipolar disorder. Schizophr Bull 41(6):1349–1359. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbv048
Wortinger LA, Engen K, Barth C et al (2020) Obstetric complications and intelligence in patients on the schizophrenia-bipolar spectrum and healthy participants. Psychol Med 50:1914–1922. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291719002046
Xie Y, Near C, Xu H, Song X (2020) Heterogeneous treatment effects on Children’s cognitive/non-cognitive skills: a reevaluation of an influential early childhood intervention. Soc Sci Res 86:102389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.102389
Yeo RA, Martinez D, Pommy J et al (2014) The impact of parent socio-economic status on executive functioning and cortical morphology in individuals with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Psychol Med 44:1257–1265. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713001608
Zijlmans MAC, Riksen-Walraven JM, de Weerth C (2015) Associations between maternal prenatal cortisol concentrations and child outcomes: a systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 53:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.02.015
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Lipner, E., O’Brien, K.J., Pike, M.R., Ered, A., Ellman, L.M. (2022). Environmental Risk Factors and Cognitive Outcomes in Psychosis: Pre-, Perinatal, and Early Life Adversity. In: Barch, D.M., Young, J.W. (eds) Cognitive Functioning in Schizophrenia: Leveraging the RDoC Framework. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 63. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_378
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_378
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-26440-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-26441-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)