Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Trends in less-lethal use of force techniques by police services within England and Wales: 2007–2011

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine the incidence of, and any changes in, usage patterns of the less-lethal forms of Use of Force (UoF) modalities—incapacitant spray, impact rounds, and TaserR—between 2007 and 2011 by English and Welsh police services. Additional information regarding the deployment and discharge of firearms was also sought. Two thousand Freedom of Information Act applications were made to 50 police services in England and Wales and related jurisdictions requesting the provision of: (a) the total number of deployments of incapacitant sprays, TaserR, impact (baton) rounds, and armed response units (ARU); (b) the numbers and types of any resulting medical complications; and (c) the details of any local policies requiring assessment by a healthcare professional following a deployment. Responses were received from 47 police services, with only 10 of these supplying complete data. The remainder supplied incomplete data or refused to supply any data under s12 of the Freedom of Information Act (time and cost restrictions). From 2007 to 2011, the use of incapacitant sprays, Taser, and firearms have increased (incapacitant sprays deployed: 3496, 3976, 6911, 6679, 6853; Taser deployed: 499, 2659, 4560, 6943, 7203; Taser discharged: 15, 85, 161, 338, 461; firearms: 0, 7, 4, 19, 32). Baton rounds and ARU use showed greater variability over the same time period (baton rounds: 1007, 1327, 1123, 1382, 1278; ARUs: 11688, 13652, 13166, 13959, 12090). Only two services could provide details of medical consequences from use of incapacitant sprays, Taser, and baton rounds. No service could provide details of any related medical complications following use of firearms. Data collection and release are variable and inconsistent throughout English and Welsh police services and thus caution is needed in determining trends of UoF techniques. Deaths or injuries inflicted using UoF techniques result in much public scrutiny and the low level of data recorded in these cases is of concern. Common systems for recording use and adverse outcomes of UoF techniques are needed to inform the public and others who have concerns about such techniques.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Association of Chief Police Officers. Policing in the UK: a brief guide. ACPO. http://www.acpo.police.uk/documents/reports/2012/201210PolicingintheUKFinal.pdf (2012). Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

  2. Faculty of Forensic & Legal Medicine. Acute behavioural disturbance: guidelines on management in police custody. http://fflm.ac.uk/upload/documents/1285761388.pdf. Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

  3. Ho JD, Heegaard WG, Dawes DM, Natarajan S, Reardon RF, Miner JR. Unexpected arrest-related deaths in America: 12 months of open source surveillance. West J Emerg Med. 2009;10(2):68–73.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Grace K. Deaths during or following police contact: statistics for England and Wales 2012/13. Independent Police Complaints Commission. http://www.ipcc.gov.uk/sites/default/files/Documents/research_stats/Deaths_Report2012-13.pdf (2013). Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

  5. Payne-James JJ. Restraint injuries and crowd control agents. In: Rogers DJ, Norfolk GA, Stark MM, editors. Good practice guidelines for forensic medical examiners. Metropolitan Police Service; 2009.

  6. Symons M, Smith G, Dean G, et al. Less lethal technologies: review of commercially available and near-market products for the Association of Chief Police Officers. Home Office Scientific Development Branch. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100418065544/http://scienceandresearch.homeoffice.gov.uk/hosdb/publications/police-weaponry/49_08_-_Less_lethal_technol12835.pdf?view=Binary (2008). Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

  7. Croft S. Alternative solvents for CS. Home Office Scientific Development Branch. 2009.

  8. Karagama Y, Newton J, Newbegin C. Short-term and long-term physical effects of exposure to CS spray. J R Soc Med. 2003;96:172–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Euripidou E, MacLehose R, Fletcher A. An investigation into the short term and medium term health impacts of personal incapacitant sprays. A follow up of patients reported to the National Poisons Information Service. Emerg Med J. 2004;21:548–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Maguire K, Hughes DM, Fitzpatrick MS, Dunn F, Rocke LG, Baird CJ. Injuries caused by the attenuated energy projectile: the latest less lethal option. Emerg Med J. 2007;24(2):103–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Payne-James JJ, Smith G, Rivers E, et al. Effects of incapacitant spray deployed in the restraint and arrest of detainees in the Metropolitan Police Service area, London, UK: a prospective study. Forensic Sci Med Pathol. doi:10.1007/s12024-013-9494-7.

  12. Payne-James JJ, Sheridan RD, Smith G. Medical implications of the Taser. BMJ. 2010;340:853.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Home Office. Statistics on police use of firearms in England and Wales 2010–11. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/statistics-on-the-police-use-of-firearms-in-england-and-wales-2010-to-2011 (2012). Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

  14. Home Office. Figures on the reported and recorded use of Taser by police forces in England and Wales. http://data.gov.uk//dataset/recorded-use-taser-england-wales (2011). Accessed 2 Sep 2013.

Download references

Acknowledgments

We thank Graham Smith, Andy Mellows, and Chris Malbon at the Home Office Centre for Applied Science and Technology, UK for advice and information.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Cameron Forensic Medical Sciences, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1, UK

    J. Jason Payne-James, Peter Green & Atholl Johnston

  2. Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, W1, UK

    E. Rivers

  3. Forensic Healthcare Services Ltd, Stronghold House, 57-59 Elm Road, Leigh-on-Sea, SS1, 1SP, UK

    J. Jason Payne-James

Authors
  1. J. Jason Payne-James
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. E. Rivers
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Peter Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Atholl Johnston
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to J. Jason Payne-James.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Payne-James, J.J., Rivers, E., Green, P. et al. Trends in less-lethal use of force techniques by police services within England and Wales: 2007–2011. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 10, 50–55 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-013-9492-9

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12024-013-9492-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation