Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health Series ((NH))

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Black RE, Morris SS, Bryce J. Where and why are 10 million children dying every year? Child survival I. Lancet 2003;361:2226–2234.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Bryce J, Boschi-Pinto C, Shibuya K, Black RE, WHO Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 2005;365:1147–1152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. The state of the world's children 2005. New York: United Nations Children's Fund, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Jones G, Steketee RW, Black RE, Bhutta ZA, Morris SS, Bellagio Child Survival Study Group. How many child deaths can we prevent this year? Child survival II. Lancet 2003;362:65–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Bryce J, el Arifeen S, Pariyo G, Lanata CF, Gwatkin D, Habicht J-P, Multi-Country Evaluation of IMCI Study Group. Reducing child mortality: can public health deliver? Child survival III. Lancet 2003;362:159–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Victora CG, Wagstaff A, Schellenberg JA, Gwatkin D, Claeson M, Habicht J-P. Applying an equity lens to child health and mortality: more of the same is not enough. Child survival I V. Lancet 2003;362: 233–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Bellagio Study Group on Child Survival. Knowledge into action for child survival. Child survival V. Lancet 2003;362:323–327.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Lawn JE, Cousens S, Zupan J, Lancet Survival Steering Team. Four million neonatal deaths: When? Where? Why? Neonatal survival 1. Lancet 2005;365:891–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Darmstadt GL, Bhutta ZA, Cousens S, Adam T, Walker N, de Bernis L, Lancet Neonatal Survival Steering Team. Evidence-based, cost-effective interventions: how many newborn babies can we save? Neonatal survival 2. Lancet 2005;365:977–988.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Knippenberg R, Lawn JE, Darmstadt GL, Begkoyian G, Fogstad H, Walelign N, Paul VK, Lancet Neonatal Survival Steering Team. Systematic scaling up of neonatal care in countries. Neonatal survival 3. Lancet 2005;365:1087–1098.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Martines J, Paul VK, Bhutta ZA, Koblinsky M, Soucat A, Walker N, Bahl R, Fogstad H, Costello A, Lancet Neonatal Survival Steering Team. Neonatal survival 4. Lancet 2005;365:1189–1197.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Mason E. Child survival: time to match commitments with action (comment). Lancet 2005;365:1286– 1287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Bryce J, Black RE, Walker N, Bhutta ZA, Lawn JE, Steketee RW. Can the world afford to save the lives of 6 million children each year? Lancet 2005; 365:2193–2200.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Costello A, Osrin D. The case for a new global fund for maternal, neonatal, and child survival. Lancet 2005;366:603–605.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Cutler D, Miller G. The role of public health improvements in health advances: the twentieth century United States. Demography 2005;42:1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Condran GA, Crimmins-Gardner E. Public health measures and mortality in US cities in the late nineteenth century. Human Ecol 1978;6:27–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Ahmed OB, Lopez AD, Inoue M. The decline in child mortality: a reappraisal. Bull World Health Organ 2000;78:1175–1191.

    Google Scholar 

  18. World Health Organization. World health report 2002. Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002. No. WHA 540.1.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Sachs JD, chair. Macroeconomics and health: investing in health for human development. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Claeson M, Waldman RJ. The evolution of child health programmes in developing countries: from targeting diseases to targeting people. Bull World Health Organ 2000;78:1234–1245.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. Progress since the world summit for children: a statistical review. New York: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, 2001. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/pubsgen/wethechildren-stats/sgreport_adapted_stats_eng.pdf.

  22. Rutstein SO. Factors associated with trends in infant mortality and child mortality in developing countries during the 1990s. Bull World Health Organ 2000;78:1256–1270.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Adetunji J. Trends in under-5 mortality rates and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Bull World Health Organ 2000;78:1200–1206.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Newell M-L, Coovadia H, Cortina-Borja M, Rollins N, Gaillard P, Dabis F, Ghent International AIDS Society Working Group. Mortality of infected and uninfected infants born to HIV-infected mothers in Africa: a pooled analysis. Lancet 2004;364:1236–1243.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Korenromp EL, Williams BG, Gouws E, Dye C, Snow RW. Measurement of trends in childhood malaria mortality in Africa: an assessment of progress toward targets based on verbal autopsy. Lancet Infect Dis 2003;3:349–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Korenromp EL, Arnold F, Williams BG, Nahlen BL, Snow RW. Monitoring trends in under-5 mortality rates through national birth history surveys. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:1293–1301.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Kynast-Wolf G, Hammer GP, Muller O, Kouyate B, Becher H. Season of death and birth predict patterns of mortality in Burkina Faso. Int J Epidemiol Advance Access August 2, 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Rayco-Solon P, Moore SE, Fulford AJ, Prentice AM. Fifty-year mortality trends in three rural African villages. Trop Med Int Health 2004;9:1151–1160.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Vaahtera M, Kulmala T, Maleta K, Cullinan T, Salin ML, Ashorn P. Epidemiology and predictors of infant morbidity in rural Malawi. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2000;14:363–371.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Borus PK, Cumberland P, Sonoiya S, Kombich J, Tukei PM, Cutts FT. Measles trends and vaccine effectiveness in Nairobi, Kenya. East Afr Med J 2003;80:361–364.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Becker S, Weng S. Seasonal patterns of deaths in Matlab, Bangladesh. Int J Epidemiol 1998;27: 814–823.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Bouvier P, Breslow N, Doumbo O, Robert CF, Picquet M, Mauris A, Dolo A, Dembele HK, Delley V, Rougemont A. Seasonality, malaria, and impact of prophylaxis in a West African village. II. Effect on birthweight. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1997;56:384–389.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Popkin BM, Guilkey DK, Schwartz JB, Flieger W. Survival in the perinatal period: a prospective analysis. J Biosoc Sci 1993;25:359–370.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Eregie CO, Ofovwe G. Observations from a cluster survey on seasonality in neonatal tetanus. East Afr Med J 1992;69:619–621.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Gonzalez Perez G, Galvez AM, Herrera Leon LL. Seasonal variations in infant mortality in Cuba. An Esp Pediatr 1988;28:521–525.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Victora CG, Vaughan JP, Barros FC. The seasonality of infant deaths due to diarrheal and respiratory diseases in southern Brazil, 1974–1978. Bull Pan Am Health Organ 1985;19:29–39.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Mosley WH, Chen LC. An analytical framework for the study of child survival in developing countries. 1984. Bull World Health Organ 2003;81:140–145.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Hill K. Frameworks for studying the determinants of child survival. Bull World Health Organ 2003;81:138–139.

    Google Scholar 

  39. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. The state of the world's children 1998. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998:24.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Shandra JM, Nobles J, London B, Williamson JB. Dependency, democracy, and infant mortality: a quantitative, cross-national analysis of less developed countries. Soc Sci Med 2004;59:321–333.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Philip E. Why infant mortality is low in Kerala. Indian J Pediatr 1985;52:439–443.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Bryant JH. Health for all: the dream and the reality. World Health Forum 1988;9:291–302; discussion 303–314.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Franke RW, Chasin BH. Kerala State, India: radical reform as development. Int J Health Serv 1992;22:139–156.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Save the Children. State of the world's mothers 2004. Westport, CT: Save the Children, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Bellew R, Raney L. Educating girls. Finance Dev 1992;29:54–56.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Caldwell J. The theory of fertility decline. New York: Academic, 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Cebu Study Team. Underlying and proximate determinants of child health: The Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Study. Am J Epidemiol 1991;133:185–201.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Katz J, West KP Jr, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Shakya TR, Khatry SK, Shrestha SR. Impact of providing a small income on women's nutritional status and household food expenditures in rural Nepal. Food Nutr Bull 2001;22:13–18.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Katz J, West KP Jr, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Khatry SK, Shrestha SR. The impact of a small steady stream of income for women on family health and economic well-being. Global Public Health 2007;2:35–52.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Wimberley D. Investment dependence and alternative explanations of third world mortality: a cross-national study. Am Sociol Rev 1990;55:830–854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Katz J, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, Christian P, LeClerq SC, Pradhan EK, Shrestha SR. Risk factors for early infant mortality in Sarlahi district, Nepal. Bull World Health Organ 2003;81:717–725.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Fauveau V, Koenig MA, Wojtyniak B. Excess female deaths among rural Bangladeshi children: an examination of cause-specific mortality and morbidity. Int J Epidemiol 1991;20:729–735.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Nielsen F, Alderson A. Income inequality, development, and dualism: results from an unbalanced cross-national panel. Am Sociol Rev 1995;60:674–701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Fuse K, Crenshaw EM. Gender imbalance in infant mortality: a cross-national study of social structure and female infanticide. Soc Sci Med 2006;62:360–374.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Johnson NE, Sufian AJM. Effect of son mortality on contraceptive practice in Bangladesh. J Biosoc Sci 1992;24:9–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Jha P, Kumar R, Vasa P, Dhingra N, Thiruchelvam D, Moineddin R. Low male-to-female sex ratio of children born in India: national survey of 1.1 million households. Lancet 2006;367:211–218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Amin R. Infant and child mortality in Bangladesh. J Biosoc Sci 1988;20:59–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Ahmed MF. Infant mortality in Bangladesh: a review of recent evidence. J Biosoc Sci 1991;23:327–336.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Curtis SL, Steele K. Variations in familial neonatal mortality risks in four countries. J Biosoc Sci 1996;28:141–159.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Desai S, Alva S. Maternal education and child health: is there a strong causal relationship? Demography 1998;35:71–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Asling-Monemi K, Pena R, Ellsberg MC, Persson LA. Violence against women increases the risk of infant and child mortality: a case-referent study in Nicaragua. Bull World Health Organ 2003;81:17–18.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Bhargava A, Chowdhury S, Singh KK. Healthcare infrastructure, contraceptive use and infant mortality in Uttar Pradesh, India. Econ Hum Biol 2005;3:388–404.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  63. Cleland J, Bicego G, Fegan G. Socioeconomic inequalities in childhood mortality: the 1970s to the 1980s. Health Trans Rev 1992;2:1–18.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Arntzen A, Samuelsen SO, Bakketeig LS, Stoltenberg C. Socioeconomic status and risk of infant death. A population-based study of trends in Norway, 1967–1998. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:279–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Brockerhoff M. Rural-to-urban migration and child survival in Senegal. Demography 1990;27:601–616.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Davanzo J, Butz WP, Habicht JP. How biological and behavioural influences on mortality in Malaysia vary during the first year of life. Pop Stud 1983;37:381–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Brockerhoff M, Derose LF. Child survival in East Africa: the impact of preventive health care. World Dev 1996;24:1841–1857.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Merrick TW. The effect of piped water on early childhood mortality in urban Brazil, 1970 to 1976. Demography 1985;22:1–24.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Davanzo J, Habicht JP. Infant mortality decline in Malaysia, 1946–1975: the roles of changes in variables and changes in the structure of the relationships. Demography 1986;23:143–160.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Paul BK. Health service resources as determinants of infant death in rural Bangladesh: an empirical study. Soc Sci Med 1991;32:43–49.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Becher H, Muller O, Jahn A, Gbangou A, Kynast-Wolf G, Kouyate B. Risk factors of infant and child mortality in rural Burkina Faso. Bull World Health Organ 2004;82:265–273.

    Google Scholar 

  72. James C, Morris SS, Keith R, Taylor A. Impact on child mortality of removing user fees: simulation model. BMJ 2005;331;747–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Bicego G, Ahmad OB. Infant and child mortality. Demographic and health surveys, comparative studies No. 20. Calverton, MD: Macro International, 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Geronimus AT, Korenman S. The socioeconomic costs of teenage childbearing: evidence and interpretation. Demography 1993;30:281–290.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Manda SOM. Unobserved family and community effects on infant mortality in Malawi. Genus 1998;54:143–164.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Markovitz BP, Cook R, Flick LH, Leet TL. Socioeconomic factors and adolescent pregnancy outcomes: distinctions between neonatal and post-neonatal deaths? BMC Public Health 2005;5:79–85.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Mavalankar DV, Trivedi CR, Gray RH. Levels and risk factors for perinatal mortality in Ahmedabad India. Bull World Health Organ 1991;69:435–442.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Van den Broeck J, Eeckels R, Massa G. Maternal determinants of child survival in a rural African community. Int J Epidemiol 1996;25:998–1004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Hull TH, Gubhaju B. Multivariate analysis of infant and child mortality in Java and Bali. J Biosoc Sc 1986;18:109–118.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Leach A, McArdle TF, Banya WAS, Krubally O, Greenwood AM, Rands C, et al. Neonatal mortality in a rural area of the Gambia. Ann Trop Paediatr 1999;19:33–43.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Barros FC, Victoria CG, Vaughan J P, Estanislau HJ. Perinatal mortality in southern Brazil: a population-based study of 7,392 births. Bull World Health Organ 1987;65:95–104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Greenwood AM, Greenwood BM, Bradley AK, Williams K, Shenton FC, Tulloch S, et al. A prospective survey of the outcome of pregnancy in a rural area of the Gambia. Bull World Health Organ 1987;65:635–643.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Kusin JA, Kardjati S, de With C. Infant mortality in Madura, Indonesia. Implications for action. J Trop Pediatr 1989;35:129–132.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Razzaque A, Ahmed K, Wai L. Twinning rates in a rural area of Bangladesh. Hum Biol 1990;62:505–514.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Chowdhury MK, Khan NU, Wai L, Bairagi R. Sex differences and sustained excess in mortality among discordant twins in Matlab, Bangladesh: 1977–1985. Int J Epidemiol 1990;19:387–390.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Katz J, West KP, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Christian P, Pradhan EK, Shrestha SR. Twinning rates and survival of twins in Nepal. Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:802–807.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Cleland J, Sathar ZA. The effect of birth spacing on childhood mortality in Pakistan. Pop Stud 1984;38:401–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Koenig MA, Phillips JF, Campbell OM, D'Souza S. Birth intervals and childhood mortality in rural Bangladesh. Demography 1990;27:251–265.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Miller JE, Trussell J, Pebley AR, Vaughan B. Birth spacing and child mortality in Bangladesh and the Philippines. Demography 1992;29:305–318.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Madise NJ, Diamond I. Determinants of infant mortality in Malawi: an analysis to control for death clustering within families. J Biosoc Sci 1995;27:95–106.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Whitworth A, Stephenson R. Birth spacing, sibling rivalry and child mortality in India. Soc Sci Med 2002;55:2107–2119.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Rutstein SO. Effects of preceding birth intervals on neonatal, infant and under-5 years mortality and nutritional status in developing countries: evidence from the demographic and health surveys. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2005;89:S7–S24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Madise NJ. Infant mortality in Zambia: socioeconomic and demographic correlates. Soc Biol 2003;50:148–166.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Setty-Venugopal V, Upadhyay UD. Birth spacing: three to five saves lives. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Population Information Program, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  95. De Sweemer C. The influence of child spacing on child survival. Pop Stud 1984;38:47–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Swenson I. Relationships between pregnancy spacing, sex of infants, maternal age, and birth order, and neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in Bangladesh. Soc Biol 1981;28:299–307.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Hobcraft JN, McDonald JW, Rutstein SO. Demographic determinants of infant and early child mortality: a comparative analysis. Pop Stud 1985;39:363–385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Palloni A, Millman S. Effects of inter-birth intervals and breastfeeding on infant and early childhood mortality. Pop Stud 1986;40:215–236.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Pebley AR, Stupp PW. Reproductive patterns and child mortality in Guatemala. Demography 1987;24:43–60.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Retherford RD, Choe MK, Thapa S, Gubhaju BB. To what extent does breastfeeding explain birth-interval effects on early childhood mortality? Demography 1989;26:439–450.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Ceesay SM, Prentice AM, Cole TJ, Foord F, Weaver LT, Poskitt EM, Whitehead RG. Effects on birth weight and perinatal mortality of maternal dietary supplements in rural Gambia: 5 year randomised controlled trial. BMJ 1997;315:786–790.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Christian P. Micronutrients and reproductive health issues: an international perspective. J Nutr 2003;133:1969S–1973S.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Katz J, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Christian P, Wu LSF, Adhikari RK, Shrestha SR, Sommer A. Maternal low-dose vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation has no effect on fetal loss and early infant mortality: a randomized cluster trial in Nepal. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1507– 1576.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Christian P, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, LeClerq SC, Kimbrough-Pradhan E, Katz J, Shrestha SR. Maternal night blindness increases risk of mortality in the first 6 months of life among infants in Nepal. J Nutr 2001;131:1510–1512.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Alexander GR, Himes JH, Kaufman RB, Mor J, Kogan M. A United States national reference for fetal growth. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:163–168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Dreyfuss ML, Stoltzfus RJ, Shrestha JB, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Khatry SK, Shrestha SR, Katz J, Albonico M, West KP Jr. Hookworms, malaria and vitamin A deficiency contribute to anemia and iron deficiency among pregnant women in the plains of Nepal. J Nutr 2000;130:2527–2536.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Christian P, Khatry SK, West KP Jr. Antenatal anthelmintic treatment, birthweight, and infant survival in rural Nepal. Lancet 2004;364:981–983.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Stoltzfus RJ, Dreyfuss ML. Guidelines for the use of iron supplements to prevent and treat iron deficiency anemia. International Nutritional Anemia Consultative Group, World Health Organization, United Nations Children's Fund. Washington, DC: ILSI, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Goldman AS, Chheda S, Garofalo R. Evolution of immunologic functions of the mammary gland and the postnatal development of immunity. Pediatr Res 1998;43:155–162.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Labbok MH, Clark D, Goldman AS. Breastfeeding: maintaining an irreplaceable immunological resource. Nat Rev Immunol 2004;4:565–572.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. WHO Collaborative Study Team on the Role of Breastfeeding on the Prevention of Infant Mortality. Effect of breastfeeding on infant and child mortality due to infectious diseases in less developed countries: a pooled analysis. Lancet 2000;355:451–455.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Bahl R, Frost C, Kirkwood BR, Edmond K, Martines J, Bhandari N, Arthur P. Infant feeding patterns and risks of death and hospitalization in the first half of infancy: multicenter cohort study. Bull World Health Organ 2005;83:418–426.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Huffman SL, Zehner ER, Victora C. Can improvements in breast-feeding practices reduce neonatal mortality in developing countries? Midwifery 2001;17:80–92.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Ashraf RN, Jalil F, Zaman S, Karlberg J, Khan SR, Lindblad BS, Hanson LA. Breast feeding and protection against neonatal sepsis in a high risk population. Arch Dis Child 1991;66:488–490.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Jakobsen MS, Sodemann M, Molbak K, Alvarenga IJ, Nielsen J, Aaby P. Termination of breastfeeding after 12 months of age due to a new pregnancy and other causes is associated with increased mortality in Guinea-Bissau. Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:92–96.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. World Health Organization. New data on the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV and their policy implications: conclusions and recommendations. Geneva, October 11–13, 2000, approved January 15, 2001 [cited January 19, 2001]. Available at: http://www.who.int/child-adolescent-health/publications/NUTRITION/New_data.htm, 2000.

  117. Ross JS, Labbok MH. Modeling the effects of different infant feeding strategies on infant survival and mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Am J Public Health 2004;94:1174–1180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Piwoz EG, Ross JS. Use of population-specific infant mortality rates to inform policy decisions regarding HIV and infant feeding. J Nutr 2005;135:1113–1119.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Morris SS, Black RE, Tomaskovic L. Predicting the distribution of under-five deaths by cause in countries without adequate vital registration systems. Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:1041–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Snow RW, Korenromp EL, Gouws E. Pediatric mortality in Africa: Plasmodium falciparum malaria as a cause or risk? Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004;71:16–24.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Villamor E, Msamanga G, Aboud S, Urassa W, Hunter DJ, Fawzi WW. Short report: adverse perinatal outcomes of HIV-1-infected women in relation to malaria parasitemia in maternal and umbilical cord blood. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005;73:694–697.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Verhoeff FH, Cessie SL, Kalanda BF, Kazembe PN, Broadhead RL, Brabin BJ. Post-neonatal infant mortality in Malawi: the importance of maternal health. Ann Trop Paed 2004;24:161–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  123. Merchant T, Schellenberg JA, Nathan R, Abdulla S, Mukasa O, Mshinda H, Lengeler C. Anaemia in pregnancy and infant mortality in Tanzania. Trop Med Int Health 2004;9:262–266.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Gemperli A, Vounatsou P, Kleinschmidt I, Bagayoko M, Lengeler C, Smith T. Spatial patterns of infant mortality in Mali: the effect of malaria endemicity. Am J Epidemiol 2004;159:64–72.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Rowe AK, Rowe SY, Snow RW, Korenromp EL, Armstrong Schellenberg JR, Stein C, Nahlen BL, Bryce J, Black RE, Steketee RW. The burden of malaria mortality among African children in the year 2000. Int J Epidemiol 2006 Advance Access February 28, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Guyatt HL, Snow RW. Malaria in pregnancy as an indirect cause of infant mortality in sub-Saharan Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2001;95:569–576.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Armstrong Schellenberg JRM, Abdulla S, Natha R, et al. Effect of large-scale social marketing of insecticide-treated nets on child survival in rural Tanzania. Lancet 2001;357:1241–1247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. Lindblade KA, Eisele TP, Gimnig JE, Alaii JA, Odhiambo F, ter Kuile FO, Hawley WA, Wannemuehler KA, Phillips-Howard PA, Rosen DH, Nahlen BL, Terlouw DJ, Adazu K, Vulule JM, Slutsker L. sustainability of reductions in malaria transmission and infant mortality in western Kenya with use of insecticide-treated bednets. 4 to 6 years of follow-up. JAMA 2004;291:2571–2580.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Fenn B, Morris SS, Black RE. Comorbidity in childhood in northern Ghana: magnitude, associated factors, and impact on mortality. Int J Epidemiol 2005;34:368–375.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  130. Freeman JV, Christian P, Khatry SK, Adhikari RK, LeClerq SC, Katz J, Darmstadt GL. Evaluation of neonatal verbal autopsy using physician review versus algorithm-based cause-of-death assignment in rural Nepal. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2005;19:323–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  131. Pelletier DL. The potentiating effects of malnutrition on child mortality: epidemiologic evidence and policy implications. Nutr Rev 1994;52:409–415.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Pelletier DL, Frongillo EA Jr, Schroeder DG, Habicht JP. The effects of malnutrition on child mortality in developing countries. Bull World Health Organ 1995;73:443–448.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Blossner M, Black RE. Undernutrition as an underlying cause of child deaths associated with diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and measles. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:193–198.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Caulfield LE, Richard SA, Black RE. Undernutrition as an underlying cause of malaria morbidity and mortality in children less than 5 years old. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004;71:55–63.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Pelletier DL, Frongillo EA. Changes in child survival are strongly associated with changes in malnutrition in developing countries. J Nutr 2003;133:107–119.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Rice AL, West KP Jr, Black RE. Vitamin A deficiency. In: Comparative quantification of health risks. Global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors, vol. 1. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJL, eds. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004;4:211–256.

    Google Scholar 

  137. Caulfield L, Black RE. Zinc deficiency. In: Comparative quantification of health risks. Global and regional burden of disease attributable to selected major risk factors, vol. 1. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Murray CJL, eds. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2004;5:257–279.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Tielsch JM, Khatry SK, Stoltzfus RJ, Katz J, LeClerq SC, Adhikari R, Mullany LC, Shrestha S, Black RE. Effect of routine prophylactic supplementation with iron and folic acid on preschool child mortality in southern Nepal: community-based, cluster-randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2006;367:144–152.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Sazawal S, Black RE, Ramsan M, Chwaya HM, Stoltzfus RJ, Dutta A, Dhingra U, Kabole I, Deb S, Othman MK, Kabole FM. Effects of routine prophylactic supplementation with iron and folic acid on admission to hospital and mortality in preschool children in a high malaria transmission setting: community-based, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2006;367:133–143.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Datta N, Mand M, Kumar V. Validation of causes of infant death in the community by verbal autopsy. Indian J Pediatr 1988;55:599–604.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Kalter HD, Gray RH, Black RE, Gultiano SA. Validation of postmortem interviews to ascertain selected causes of death in children. Int J Epidemiol 1990;19:380–386.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Mirza NM, Macharia WM, Wafula EM, Agwanda RO, Onyango FE. Verbal autopsy: a tool for determining cause of death in a community. E Afr Med J 1990;67:693–698.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Snow B, Marsh K. How useful are verbal autopsies to estimate childhood causes of death? Health Policy Plan 1992;7:22–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Marsh DR, Sadruddin S, Fikree FF, Krishnan C, Darmstadt GL. Validation of verbal autopsy to determine the cause of 137 neonatal deaths in Karachi, Pakistan. Paed Perinat Epidemiol 2003;17:132–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  145. Shrivastava SP, Kumar A, Ojha AK. Verbal autopsy determined causes of neonatal deaths. Indian Pediatr 2001;38:1022–1025.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Weiner R, Ronsmans C, Dorman E, Jilo H, Muhoro A, Shulman C. Labour complications remain the most important risk factors for perinatal mortality in rural Kenya. Bull World Health Organ 2003;81:561–566.

    Google Scholar 

  147. Kulmala T, Vaahtera M, Rannikko J, et al. The relationship between antenatal risk characteristics, place of delivery and adverse delivery outcome in rural Malawi. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2000;79:984–990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Chalumeau M, Salanave B, Bouvier-Colle MH, De Bernis L, Prual A, Breart G. Risk factors for perinatal mortality in West Africa: a population-based study of 20326 pregnancies. Acta Paediatr 2000;89:1115–1121.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Child Health Research Project. Reducing perinatal and neonatal mortality. Volume 3, No. 1. Report of a meeting May 10–12, 1999. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  150. World Health Organization. The world health report 2001. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  151. Koblinsky MA, Tinker A, Daly P. Programming for safe motherhood: a guide to action. Health Policy Plan 1994;9:252–266.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. State of the world's children report 2001. New York: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund, 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Barros FC, Victora CG, Barros AJD, Santos IS, Albernaz E, Matijasevich A, Domingues MR, Sclowitz IKT, Hallal PC, Silveira MF, Vaughan JP. The challenge of reducing neonatal mortality in middle-income countries: findings from three Brazilian birth cohorts in 1982, 1993, and 2004. Lancet 2005;365: 847–854.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  154. Lancet. The world's forgotten children (comment). Lancet 2003;361:1.

    Google Scholar 

  155. Working Group on Women and Child Health. Improving child health: the role of research. BMJ 2002;324:1444–1447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  156. Okeke IN, Laxminarayan R, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Klug-man K P. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part I: recent trends and current status. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:481–493.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Okeke IN, Klugman KP, Bhutta ZA, Duse AG, Jenkins P, O'Brien TF, Pablos-Mendez A, Laxminarayan R. Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries. Part II: strategies for containment. Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:568–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  158. Rahmathullah L, Tielsch JM, Thulasiraj RD, Katz J, Coles C, Devi S, John R, Prakash K, Sadanand AV, Edwin N, Kamaraj C. Impact of supplementing newborn infants with vitamin A on early infant mortality: community based randomised trial in southern India. BMJ 2003;327:254–259.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Humphrey JH, Agoenstina T, Wu L, Usman A, Nurachim M, Subardja D, Hidayat S, Tielsch J, West KP Jr, Sommer A. Impact of neonatal vitamin A supplementation on infant morbidity and mortality. J Pediatr 1996;128:489–496.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Humphrey JH, Iliff PJ, Marinda ET, Mutasa K, Moulton LH, Chidawanyika H, Ward BJ, Nathoo KJ, Malaba LC, Zijenah LS, Zvandasara P, Ntozini R, Mzengeza F, Mahomva AI, Ruff AJ, Mbizvo MT, Zunguza CD, ZVITAMBO Study Group. Effects of a single large dose of vitamin A, given during the postpartum period to HIV-positive women and their infants, on child HIV infection, HIV-free survival, and mortality. J Infect Dis 2006;193:860–871.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Fawzi, WW, Msamanga GI, Hunter D, et al. Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to transmission of HIV-1 through breastfeeding and early child mortality. AIDS 2002;16:1935–1944.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Tielsch JM, Darmstadt GL, Mullany LC, Khatry SK, Katz J, LeClerq SC, Shrestha S, Adhikari R. Impact of newborn skin-cleansing with chlorhexadine on neonatal mortality in southern Nepal: a community-based, cluster-randomized trial. Pediatrics 2007;76:725–731.

    Google Scholar 

  163. Taha TE, Biggar RJ, Broadhead RL, et al. Effect of cleaning the birth canal with antiseptic solution on maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality in Malawi. BMJ 1997;315:216–220.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Bakr AF, Karkour T. Effect of predelivery vaginal antisepsis on maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality in Egypt. J Womens Health 2005;14:496–501.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Mullany LC, Darmstadt GL, Khatry SK, Katz J, LeClerq SC, Shrestha S, Adhikari R, Tielsch JM. Topical applications of chlorhexidine to the umbilical cord prevent omphalitis and neonatal mortality in southern Nepal: a community-based, cluster-randomized trial. Lancet 2006; 367:910–918.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Manandhar DS, Osrin D, Shrestha BP, Mesko N, Morrison J, Tumbahangphe KM, Tamang S, Thapa S, Shrestha D, Thapa B, Shrestha JR, Wade A, Borghi J, Standing H, Manandhar M, de L Costello AM, MIRA Makwanpur Trial Team. Effect of a participatory intervention with women's groups on birth outcomes in Nepal: cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004;364:970–979.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  167. Jokhio AH, Winter HR, Cheng KK. An intervention involving traditional birth attendants and perinatal and maternal mortality in Pakistan. N Engl J Med 2005;352:2091–2099.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. Bang AT, Bang RA, Stoll BJ, Baitule SB, Reddy HM, Deshmukh MD. Is home-based diagnosis and treatment of neonatal sepsis feasible and effective? Seven years of intervention in the Gadchiroli field trial (1996 to 2003). J Perinatol 2005;25S:S62–S71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  169. Reddy MH, Bang AT. How to identify neonates at risk of death in rural India: clinical criteria for the risk approach. J Perinatol 2005;25S:S44–S50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  170. Bang AT, Reddy HM, Bang RA, Deshmukh MD. Why do neonates die in rural Gadchiroli, India? (Part II): estimating population attributable risks and contribution of multiple morbidities for identifying a strategy to prevent deaths. J Perinatol 2005;25S:S35–S43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  171. Bang AT, Bang RA. Background of the field trial of home-based neonatal care in Gadchiroli, India. J Perinatol 2005;25S:S3–S10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  172. Bang AT, Bang RA, Reddy HM. Home-based neonatal care: summary and applications of the field trial in rural Gadchiroli, India (1993 to 2003). J Perinatol 2005;25S:S108–S122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  173. Paul VK, Singh M. Regionalized perinatal care in developing countries. Semin Neonatal 2004; 9:117–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  174. Adam T, Lim SS, Mehta S, Bhutta ZA, Fogstad H, Mathai M, Zupan J, Darmstadt GL. Cost effectiveness analysis of strategies for maternal and neonatal health in developing countries. BMJ 2005;331:1107–1110.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  175. Barnett S, Nair N, Lewycka S, Costello A. Community interventions for maternal and perinatal health (commentary). Int J Obstet Gynaecol 2005;112:1170–1173.

    Google Scholar 

  176. Borghi J, Thapa B, Osrin D, Jan S, Morrison J, Tamang S, Shrestha BP, Wade A, Manandhar DS, de L Costello AM. Economic assessment of a women's group intervention to improve birth outcomes in rural Nepal. Lancet 2005;366:1882–1884.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  177. Horton R. Newborn survival: putting children at the centre (comment). Lancet 2005;365:821–822.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  178. Bryce J, Victora CG. Child survival: countdown to 2015 (comment). Lancet 2005;365:2153–2154.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  179. Tinker A, ten Hoppe-Bender P, Azfar S, Bustreo F, Bell R. A continuum of care to save newborn lives (comment). Lancet 2005;365:822–825.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  180. Dyer O. Goals to reduce poverty and infant mortality will be missed. News BMJ 2005;331:593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  181. Lancet Infectious Diseases. Poor shooting at the millennium development goals (editorial). Lancet Infect Dis 2005;5:529.

    Google Scholar 

  182. Child Mortality Coordination Group. Tracking progress towards the Millenium Development Goals: reaching consensus on child mortality levels and trends. Bull World Health Organ 2006; 84:225–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  183. Lopez AD. Commentary: estimating the causes of child deaths. Int J Epidemiol 2003;32:1052–1053.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Christian, P. (2008). Infant Mortality. In: Semba, R.D., Bloem, M.W., Piot, P. (eds) Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries. Nutrition and Health Series. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-464-3_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-464-3_4

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-934115-24-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-464-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics