Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Treatment

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Adult ADHD

Abstract

This chapter guides the reader through the first part of the treatment of ADHD in adults. Treatment always starts with psychoeducation, and the special attitude of the therapist treating patients with ADHD is first discussed. Frequent asked questions and answers about ADHD and the treatment are addressed, as well as different forms of psychoeducation to patients and to the public, and at different phases of the treatment. Psychoeducation is regarded as a continuous process to empower patients to make their own well-informed decisions during treatment.

The part on medication treatment gives an overview of the available medications for ADHD. The effect of medication on the brain and on addiction is discussed. The order of treatment in case of comorbidity, how to deal with alcohol and cannabis use while on medication, contraindications, the physical exam before starting, measures to evaluate efficacy, dosing, and duration of action of different short- and long-acting stimulant preparations are all reviewed, as well as how to deal with pregnancy and driving issues while using medication for ADHD. The combination of stimulants with other psychopharmacotherapeutical treatments and finally treatment with melatonin for the delayed sleep phase in ADHD are described in a practical way for everyday clinical practice. Finally, the place of complementary and alternative treatments is shortly reviewed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adler L, Dietrich A, Reimherr FW, Taylor LVM, Sutton VK, Bakken R, et al. Safety and tolerability of once versus twice daily atomoxetine in adults with ADHD. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2006;18(2):107–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Adler LA, Spencer TJ, Levine LR, Ramsey JL, Tamura R, Kelsey D, et al. Functional outcomes in the treatment of adults with ADHD. J Atten Disord. 2008;11(6):720–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Adler LA, Liebowitz M, Kronenberger W, Qiao M, Rubin R, Hollandbeck M, et al. Atomoxetine treatment in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbid social anxiety disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2009;26(3):212–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Akhondzadeh S, Tavakolian R, Davari-Ashtiani R, Arabgol F, Amini H. Selegiline in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children: a double blind and randomized trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2003;27(5):841–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amiri S, Mohammadi MR, Mohammadi M, Nouroozinejad GH, Kahbazi M, Akhondzadeh S. Modafinil as a treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a double blind, randomized clinical trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008;32(1):145–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amons P, Kooij J, Haffmans P, Hoffman T, Hoencamp E. Seasonality of mood disorders in adults with lifetime attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Affect Disord. 2006;91(2–3):251–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Asherson P. Clinical assessment and treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Expert Rev Neurother. 2005;5(4):525–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banaschewski T, Roessner V, Dittmann RW, Santosh PJ, Rothenberger A. Non-stimulant medications in the treatment of ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13 Suppl 1:I102–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bangs ME, Emslie GJ, Spencer TJ, Ramsey JL, Carlson C, Bartky EJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of atomoxetine in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and major depression. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17(4):407–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bangs ME, Jin L, Zhang S, Desaiah D, Allen AJ, Read HA, et al. Hepatic events associated with atomoxetine treatment for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drug Saf. 2008a;31(4):345–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bangs ME, Tauscher-Wisniewski S, Polzer J, Zhang S, Acharya N, Desaiah D, et al. Meta-analysis of suicide-related behavior events in patients treated with atomoxetine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008b;47(2):209–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Leibson CL, Jacobsen SJ. Long-term stimulant medication treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: results from a population-based study. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2006;27(1):1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA. ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: The Guilford Press; 1997a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA. Age dependent decline in ADHD: true recovery or statistical illusion? ADHD Rep. 1997b;5:1–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, Murphy KR. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 3rd ed.: A clinical workbook. Guilford Publications; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, Murphy KR, Dupaul GJ, Bush T. Driving in young adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: knowledge, performance, adverse outcomes, and the role of executive functioning. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2002;8(5):655–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, Murphy KR, O’Connell T, Connor DF. Effects of two doses of methylphenidate on simulator driving performance in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Safety Res. 2005;36(2):121–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley RA, O’Connell T, Murphy KR, Anderson D, Connor DF. Effects of two doses of alcohol on simulator driving performance in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology. 2006;20(1):77–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bekker EM, Kooij JJS, Buitelaar JK. Sleep and quality of life in ADHD. In: Verster J, editor. Sleep and quality of life in medical illness. Totowa: Humana Press; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berman T, Douglas VI, Barr RG. Effects of methylphenidate on complex cognitive processing in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 1999;108(1):90–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, Knee D, Harmatz JS. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of ADD: I. Efficacy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989a;28(5):777–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, Knee D, Harmatz JS, Goldblatt A. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment ADD: II. Serum drug levels and cardiovascular findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989b;28(6):903–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, Curtis S, Chen L, Marrs A, et al. Predictors of persistence and remission of ADHD into adolescence: results from a four-year prospective follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996a;35(3):343–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Faraone S, Milberger S, Guite J, Mick E, Chen L, et al. A prospective 4-year follow-up study of attention-deficit hyperactivity and related disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996b;53(5):437–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Spencer T, Wilens T. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2004;7(1):77–97.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Wilens TE, Weisler RH, Read SC, Tulloch SJ. Long-term safety and effectiveness of mixed amphetamine salts extended release in adults with ADHD. CNS Spectr. 2005;10(12 Suppl 20):16–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Arnsten AF, Faraone SV, Doyle AE, Spencer TJ, Wilens TE, et al. New developments in the treatment of ADHD. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(1):148–59.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Adler LA. Diagnosis and treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Spectr. 2007;12(4 Suppl 6):1–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Melmed RD, Patel A, McBurnett K, Donahue J, Lyne A. Long-term, open-label extension study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with ADHD. CNS Spectr. 2008a;13(12):1047–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Seidman LJ, Petty CR, Fried R, Doyle AE, Cohen DR, et al. Effects of stimulant medication on neuropsychological functioning in young adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008b;69(7):1150–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Biederman J, Pliszka SR. Modafinil improves symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across subtypes in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2008c;152(3):394–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blick SK, Keating GM. Lisdexamfetamine. Paediatr Drugs. 2007;9(2):129–35; discussion 136–128.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brue AW, Oakland TD. Alternative treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: does evidence support their use? Altern Ther Health Med. 2002;8(1):68–70, 72–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brue AW, Oakland TD, Evans RA. The use of a dietary supplement combination and an essential fatty acid as an alternative and complementary treatment for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Sci Rev Altern Med. 2001;5(4):187–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhagiar K, Cassar J. Methylphenidate augmentation of fluvoxamine for treatment-resistant depression: a case report and review literature. Turk Psikiyatri Derg. 2007;18(2):179–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buitelaar JK, Danckaerts M, Gillberg C, Zuddas A, Becker K, Bouvard M, et al. A prospective, multicenter, open-label assessment of atomoxetine in non-North American children and adolescents with ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;13(4):249–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson GA, Loney J, Salisbury H, Kramer JR, Arthur C. Stimulant treatment in young boys with symptoms suggesting childhood mania: a report from a longitudinal study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2000;10(3):175–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson PJ, Merlock MC, Suppes T. Adjunctive stimulant use in patients with bipolar disorder: treatment of residual depression and sedation. Bipolar Disord. 2004;6(5):416–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carpentier PJ. Pharmacotherapy for ADHD with addiction, in Dutch. Psyfar Nascholingstijdschrift over Psychofarmacologie. 2007;2(4):46–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carpentier PJ, de Jong CA, Dijkstra BA, Verbrugge CA, Krabbe PF. A controlled trial of methylphenidate in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance use disorders. Addiction. 2005;100(12):1868–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carrillo-Vico A, Guerrero JM, Lardone PJ, Reiter RJ. A review of the multiple actions of melatonin on the immune system. Endocrine. 2005;27(2):189–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chamberlain SR, Del Campo N, Dowson J, Muller U, Clark L, Robbins TW, et al. Atomoxetine improved response inhibition in adults with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(9):977–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chamorro L, Lopez I. Treatment of the attention deficit disorder (residual type) with moclobemide. Eur Psychiatry. 1995;10(2):112.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan E, Rappaport LA, Kemper KJ. Complementary and alternative therapies in childhood ­attention and hyperactivity problems. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2003;24(1):4–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connor DF, Steingard RJ. New formulations of stimulants for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: therapeutic potential. CNS Drugs. 2004;18(14):1011–30.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Conway J, Wong KK, OíConnell C, Warren AE. Cardiovascular risk screening before starting stimulant medications and prescribing practices of canadian physicians: impact of the Health Canada advisory. Pediatrics. 2008;122(4):e828–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coulter MK, Dean ME. Homeopathy for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder or hyperkinetic disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;17(4): CD005648.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox DJ, Merkel RL, Kovatchev B, Seward R. Effect of stimulant medication on driving performance of young adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary double-blind placebo controlled trial. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2000;188(4):230–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cox DJ, Humphrey JW, Merkel RL, Penberthy JK, Kovatchev B. Controlled-release methylphenidate improves attention during on-road driving by adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Am Board Fam Pract. 2004a;17(4):235–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cox DJ, Merkel RL, Penberthy JK, Kovatchev B, Hankin CS. Impact of methylphenidate delivery profiles on driving performance of adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004b;43(3):269–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cox DJ, Merkel RL, Moore M, Thorndike F, Muller C, Kovatchev B. Relative benefits of stimulant therapy with OROS methylphenidate versus mixed amphetamine salts extended release in improving the driving performance of adolescent drivers with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2006a;118(3):e704–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cox DJ, Punja M, Powers K, Merkel R, Burket R, Moore M, et al. Manual transmission enhances attention and driving performance of ADHD adolescent males: pilot study. J Atten Disord. 2006b;10(2):212–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daviss WB, Birmaher B, Diler RS, Mintz J, Spencer TJ. Does pharmacotherapy for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder predict risk of later major depression? Treatment of adult ADHD and comorbid depression. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18(3):257–64.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Debooy VD, Seshia MM, Tenenbein M, Casiro OG. Intravenous pentazocine and methylphenidate abuse during pregnancy. Maternal lifestyle and infant outcome. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147(10):1062–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dodson WW. Pharmacotherapy of adult ADHD. J Clin Psychol. 2005;61(5):589–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dopfel RP, Schulmeister K, Schernhammer ES. Nutritional and lifestyle correlates of the cancer-protective hormone melatonin. Cancer Detect Prev. 2007;31(2):140–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dresel S, Krause J, Krause KH, LaFougere C, Brinkbaumer K, Kung HF, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate treatment. Eur J Nucl Med. 2000;27(10):1518–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Durst R, Rebaudengo-Rosca P. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, facilitating alcohol and drug abuse in an adult. Harefuah. 1997;132(9):618–22, 680.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elia J, Borcherding BG, Rapoport JL, Keysor CS. Methylphenidate and dextroamphetamine treatments of hyperactivity: are there true nonresponders? Psychiatry Res. 1991;36(2):141–55.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: implications for theories of diagnosis. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2000;9:33–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate: the first long-acting prodrug stimulant treatment for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2008;9(9):1565–74.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J. Efficacy of adderall for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis. J Atten Disord. 2002;6(2):69–75.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Upadhyaya HP. The effect of stimulant treatment for ADHD on later substance abuse and the potential for medication misuse, abuse, and diversion. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007;68(11):e28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Short EJ, Biederman J, Findling RL, Roe C, Manos MJ. Efficacy of Adderall and methylphenidate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a drug-placebo and drug-drug response curve analysis of a naturalistic study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2002;5(2):121–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry. 2003;2:104–13.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, Michelson D, Adler L, Reimherr F, et al. Efficacy of atomoxetine in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a drug-placebo response curve analysis. Behav Brain Funct. 2005a;1:16.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, Michelson D, Adler L, Reimherr F, et al. Atomoxetine and stroop task performance in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005b;15(4):664–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Doyle A, Murray K, Petty C, Adamson JJ, et al. Neuropsychological studies of late onset and subthreshold diagnoses of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006a;60(10):1081–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Spencer T, Mick E, Murray K, Petty C, et al. Diagnosing adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: are late onset and subthreshold diagnoses valid? Am J Psychiatry. 2006b;163(10):1720–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraone SV, Biederman J, Morley CP, Spencer TJ. Effect of stimulants on height and weight: a review of the literature. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2008;47(9):994–1009.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fayyad J, de Graaf R, Kessler R, Alonso J, Angermeyer M, Demyttenaere K, et al. Cross-national prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2007;190:402–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feinberg SS. Combining stimulants with monoamine oxidase inhibitors: a review of uses and one possible additional indication. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65(11):1520–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Findling RL, Schwartz MA, Flannery DJ, Manos MJ. Venlafaxine in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: an open clinical trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 1996;57(5):184–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Findling RL, Bukstein OG, Melmed RD, Lopez FA, Sallee FR, Arnold LE, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of methylphenidate transdermal system in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(1):149–59.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Furara SA, Carrick P, Armstrong D, Pairaudeau P, Pullan AM, Lindow SW. The outcome of pregnancy associated with amphetamine use. J Obstet Gynaecol. 1999;19(4):377–80.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gadow KD, Sverd J. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, chronic tic disorder, and methylphenidate. Adv Neurol. 2006;99:197–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gadow KD, Sverd J, Sprafkin J, Nolan EE, Grossman S. Long-term methylphenidate therapy in children with comorbid attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and chronic multiple tic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999;56(4):330–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galanter CA, Carlson GA, Jensen PS, Greenhill LL, Davies M, Li W, et al. Response to methylphenidate in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and manic symptoms in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder titration trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2003;13(2):123–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gastfriend DR, Biederman J, Jellinek MS. Desipramine in the treatment of adolescents with attention deficit disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1984;141(7):906–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson AP, Bettinger TL, Patel NC, Crismon ML. Atomoxetine versus stimulants for treatment of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2006;40(6):1134–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg C, Melander H, von Knorring AL, Janols LO, Thernlund G, Hagglof B, et al. Long-term stimulant treatment of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54(9):857–64.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gimpel GA, Collett BR, Veeder MA, Gifford JA, Sneddon P, Bushman B, et al. Effects of stimulant medication on cognitive performance of children with ADHD. Clin Pediatr. 2005;44(5):405–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Golubchik P, Sever J, Zalsman G, Weizman A, Martel MM, Nigg JT, et al. Methylphenidate in the treatment of female adolescents with cooccurrence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and borderline personality disorder: a preliminary open-label trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008;23(4):228–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield B, Hechman L. Treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Expert Rev Neurother. 2005;5(1):107–21.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Greenhill LL, Ford RE. Childhood attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: pharmacological treatments. In: Nathan PE, Gorman JM, editors. A guide to treatments that work. 2nd ed. London: Oxford University Press; 2002. p. 25–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross-Tsur V, Manor O, Van Der Meere J, Joseph A, Shalev RS. Epilepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: is methylphenidate safe and effective? J Pediatr. 1997;130(1):40–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gucuyener K, Erdemoglu AK, Senol S, Serdaroglu A, Soysal S, Kockar AI. Use of methylphenidate for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with epilepsy or electroencephalographic abnormalities. J Child Neurol. 2003;18(2):109–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gunning WB. A controlled trial of clonidine in hyperkinetic children. Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit. Proefschrift; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hah M, Chang K. Atomoxetine for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents with bipolar disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005;15(6):996–1004.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hechtman L, Greenfield B. Long-term use of stimulants in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: safety, efficacy, and long-term outcome. Pediatric Drugs. 2003;5(12):787–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hechtman L, Etcovitch J, Platt R, Arnold LE, Abikoff HB, Newcorn JH, et al. Does multimodal treatment of ADHD decrease other diagnoses? Clin Neurosci Res. 2005;5(5–6):273–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hesdorffer DC, Ludvigsson P, Olafsson E, Gudmundsson G, Kjartansson O, Hauser WA. ADHD as a risk factor for incident unprovoked seizures and epilepsy in children. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(7):731–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hooberman D, Stern TA. Treatment of attention deficit and borderline personality disorders with psychostimulants: case report. J Clin Psychiatry. 1984;45(10):441–2.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt RD, Lau S. Ryu J. Alternative therapies for ADHD. In: Liebert MA, ed. Ritalin, theory and patient management 1991, pp. 75–96, New York.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jasinski DR, Faries DE, Moore RJ, Schuh LM, Allen AJ. Abuse liability assessment of atomoxetine in a drug-abusing population. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;95(1–2):140–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen P. Longer term effects of stimulant treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Atten Disord. 2002;6 Suppl 1:S45–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kay GG, Michaels MA, Pakull B. Simulated driving changes in young adults with ADHD receiving mixed amphetamine salts extended release and atomoxetine. J Atten Disord. 2009;12(4):316–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly K, Ramundo P, Hallowell EM. You mean I am not lazy, stupid or crazy?! The classic selfhelp book for adults with ADHD. Scribner; 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler RC, Adler L, Berkley R, Biederman J, Conners CK, Demler O, et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;163(4):716–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kollins SH, Wilens TE, Fusillo S, Faraone SV, Upadhyaya HP. ADHD, substance use disorders, and psychostimulant treatment: current literature and treatment guidelines. J Atten Disord. 2008;12(2):115–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Konrad K, Neufang S, Fink GR, Herpertz-Dahlmann B. Long-term effects of methylphenidate on neural networks associated with executive attention in children with ADHD: results from a longitudinal functional MRI study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(12):1633–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS. ADHD bij volwassenen. Inleiding in diagnostiek en behandeling, in Dutch). (ADHD in adults. Introduction to diagnostic assessment and treatment. 2nd ed. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS. (On medication for adults with ADHD, in Dutch). Over medicatie voor volwassenen met ADHD. Den Haag/Bilthoven: Kenniscentrum ADHD bij volwassenen, PsyQ and Impuls; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS. ADHD in adults. Clinical studies on assessment and treatment. Thesis, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, 2006.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS, Aeckerlin LP, Buitelaar JK. Functioning, comorbidity and treatment of 141 adults with ADHD at an outpatient psychiatric clinic, in Dutch). Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd. 2001;145(31):1498–501.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS, Burger H, Boonstra AM, van der Linden PD, Kalma LE, Buitelaar JK. Efficacy and safety of methylphenidate in 45 adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. A randomized placebo-controlled double-blind cross-over trial. Psychol Med. 2004;34(6):973–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JJS, Buitelaar JK, van den Oord EJ, Furer JW, Rijnders CAT, Hodiamont PPG. Internal and external validity of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in a population-based sample of adults. Psychol Med. 2005;35(6):817–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kooij JS, Boonstra AM, Vermeulen SH, Heister AG, Burger H, Buitelaar JK, et al. Response to methylphenidate in adults with ADHD is associated with a polymorphism in SLC6A3 (DAT1). Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008;147B(2):201–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Krause KH, Dresel SH, Krause J, la Fougere C, Ackenheil M. The dopamine transporter and neuroimaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2003;27(7):605–13.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar R. Approved and investigational uses of modafinil: an evidence-based review. Drugs. 2008;68(13):1803–39.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levitan RD, Jain UR, Katzman MA. Seasonal affective symptoms in adults with residual attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Compr Psychiatry. 1999;40(4):261–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewy AJ. Melatonin and human chronobiology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol. 2007;72:623–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewy AJ, Ahmed S, Jackson JM, Sack RL. Melatonin shifts human circadian rhythms according to a phase-response curve. Chronobiol Int. 1992;9(5):380–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewy AJ, Emens J, Jackman A, Yuhas K. Circadian uses of melatonin in humans. Chronobiol Int. 2006a;23(1–2):403–12.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewy AJ, Lefler BJ, Emens JS, Bauer VK. The circadian basis of winter depression. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006b;103(19):7414–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lewy AJ, Rough JN, Songer JB, Mishra N, Yuhas K, Emens JS. The phase shift hypothesis for the circadian component of winter depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2007;9(3):291–300.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Loo SK, Barkley RA. Clinical utility of EEG in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Appl Neuropsychol. 2005;12(2):64–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovecchio F, Kashani J. Isolated atomoxetine (Strattera) ingestions commonly result in toxicity. J Emerg Med. 2006;31(3):267–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lydon E, El-Mallakh RS. Naturalistic long-term use of methylphenidate in bipolar disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26(5):516–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medical letter on Daytrana. The medical letter on Drugs and Therapeutics, June 19th, 2006, by the FDA for Daytrana (transdermal methylphenidate patch).

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medori R, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Casas M, Kooij JJ, Niemela A, Trott GE, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of three fixed dosages of prolonged-release OROS methylphenidate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(10):981–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Merkx MJ, Schippers GM, Koeter MJ, Vuijk PJ, Oudejans S, de Vries CC, et al. Allocation of substance use disorder patients to appropriate levels of care: feasibility of matching guidelines in routine practice in Dutch treatment centres. Addiction. 2007;102(3):466–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mick E, Neale B, Middleton FA, McGough JJ, Faraone SV. Genome-wide association study of response to methylphenidate in 187 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2008;147B(8):1412–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minzenberg MJ, Carter CS. Modafinil: a review of neurochemical actions and effects on cognition. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33(7):1477–502.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy KR. Empowering the adult with ADD. In: Nadeau KG, editor. A comprehensive guide to attention deficit disorder in adults: Research, diagnosis, and treatment. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel, Inc.; 1995. p. 135–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray DW, Arnold LE, Swanson J, Wells K, Burns K, Jensen P, et al. A clinical review of outcomes of the multimodal treatment study of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (MTA). Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2008;10(5):424–31.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nadeau KG. Survival guide for college students with ADD or LD. New York: Magination Press; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nadeau K. Adventures in fast forward. Life, love and work for the ADD adult. Brunner/Mazel; 1996.

    Google Scholar 

  • Najib J. The efficacy and safety profile of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate, a prodrug of d-amphetamine, for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adults. Clin Ther. 2009;31(1):142–76.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Newcorn JH, Kratochvil CJ, Allen AJ, Casat CD, Ruff DD, Moore RJ, et al. Atomoxetine and osmotically released methylphenidate for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: acute comparison and differential response. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(6):721–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • NTP-CERHR monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of amphetamines. Ntp Cerhr Mon. 2005a;16(16):vii–III1.

    Google Scholar 

  • NTP-CERHR Monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of methylphenidate. Ntp Cerhr Mon. 2005b;15(15): i–III1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ocana AM. Management of cocaine addiction in ADHD. Atten Deficit Hyperact Disord. 2009;1:139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pappadopulos E, Jensen PS, Chait AR, Arnold LE, Swanson JM, Greenhill LL, Hechtman L, Chuang S, Wells KC, Pelham W, Cooper T, Elliott G, Newcorn JH. Medication adherence in the MTA: saliva methylphenidate samples versus parent report and mediating effect of concomitant behavioral treatment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(5):501–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelham Jr WE, Greenslade KE, Vodde-Hamilton M, Murphy DA, Greenstein JJ, Gnagy EM, et al. Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline. Pediatrics. 1990;86(2):226–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Savelkoul HF, Pereira RR, Buitelaar JK. A randomised controlled trial into the effects of food on ADHD. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;18(1):12–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Savelkoul HF, Dubois AE, Pereira RR, Haagen TA, Rommelse NN, Buitelaar JK. Effects of a restricted elimination diet on the behaviour of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (INCA study): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2011;377(9764):494–503.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce D, Dixon CM, Wigal SB, McGough JJ. Pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate transdermal system (MTS): results from a laboratory classroom study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2008;18(4):355–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pietrzak RH, Mollica CM, Maruff P, Snyder PJ. Cognitive effects of immediate-release methylphenidate in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2006;30(8):1225–45.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poltavski D, Petros T. Effects of transdermal nicotine on attention in adult non-smokers with and without attentional deficits. Physiol Behav. 2006;87(3):614–24.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quinn P, Nadeau K. Understanding women with ADHD. Silver Spring: Advantage Books; 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Castells X, Valero S, Nogueira M, Gomez N, et al. Effect of switching drug formulations from immediate-release to extended-release OROS methylphenidate: a chart review of Spanish adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. CNS Drugs. 2008;22(7):603–11.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport JL, Inoff-Germain G. Responses to methylphenidate in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and normal children: update 2002. J Atten Disord. 2002;6 Suppl 1:S57–60.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport JL, Quinn PO, Bradbard G, Riddle KD, Brooks E. Imipramine and methylphenidate treatments of hyperactive boys. A double-blind comparison. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1974;30(6):789–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rapport MD, Denney CB. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and methylphenidate: assessment and prediction of clinical response. In: Greenhill LL, Osman BB, editors. Ritalin: theory and practice. 2nd ed. New York: Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.; 2000. p. 45–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raz R, Gabis L. Essential fatty acids and attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2009;22:22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reimherr FW, Marchant BK, Strong RE, Hedges DW, Adler L, Spencer TJ, et al. Emotional dysregulation in adult ADHD and response to atomoxetine. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;58(2):125–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ronkainen H, Vakkuri O, Kauppila A. Effects of physical exercise on the serum concentration of melatonin in female runners. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1986;65(8):827–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rostain AL. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: evidence-based recommendations for management. Postgrad Med. 2008;120(3):27–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sadock BJ, Sadock VA, Ruiz P. Kaplan & Sadockís comprehensive textbook of psychiatry. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safren SA, Sprich S, Perlman CA, Otto MW. Mastering your adult ADHD: a cognitive-behavioral treatment program client workbook (Treatments That Work); 2005a.

    Google Scholar 

  • Safren SA, Sprich S, Perlman CA, Otto MW. Mastering your adult ADHD: a cognitive-behavioral treatment program therapist guide (Treatments That Work); 2005b.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandberg S. Hyperactivity and attention disorders of childhood. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2002.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sangal RB, Owens J, Allen AJ, Sutton V, Schuh K, Kelsey D. Effects of atomoxetine and methylphenidate on sleep in children with ADHD. Sleep. 2006;29(12):1573–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saul RC. Nortriptyline in attention deficit disorder. Clin Neuropharmacol. 1985;8(4):382–3.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sawni A. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and complementary/alternative medicine. Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2008;19(2):313–26, xi.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer RE, Kowatch RA, Carmody T, Rush AJ. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of mixed amphetamine salts for symptoms of comorbid ADHD in pediatric bipolar disorder after mood stabilization with divalproex sodium. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162(1):58–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schuijers F, Kooij JJS. (Adults with ADHD for each other. Support project, in Dutch). (ADHD’ ers voor elkaar. Lotgenotenproject). Bilthoven: Vereniging Impuls; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seelen, M. L. & Blom, M. B. J. (2009). Quality of response in bipolar II patients treated with moodstabilisers and stimulants for comorbid ADHD, in Dutch. Internal publication PsyQ, psycho-medical programs.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson D, Plosker GL. Atomoxetine: a review of its use in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs. 2004;64(2):205–22.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sliwinski T, Rozej W, Morawiec-Bajda A, Morawiec Z, Reiter R, Blasiak J. Protective action of melatonin against oxidative DNA damage – chemical inactivation versus base-excision repair. Mutat Res. 2007;634(1–2):220–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smits MG, Nagtegaal EE, van der Heijden J, Coenen AM, Kerkhof GA. Melatonin for chronic sleep onset insomnia in children: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Child Neurol. 2001;16(2):86–92.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto MV, Arnsten AFT, Castellanos FX, editors. Stimulant drugs and ADHD: Basic and clinical neuroscience. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.p. xii, 410pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Solhkhah R, Wilens TE, Daly J, Prince JB, Van Patten SL, Biederman J. Bupropion SR for the treatment of substance-abusing outpatient adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mood disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2005;15(5):777–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Harding M, O’Donnell D, Griffin S. Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder across the life cycle. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(4):409–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Faraone S, Prince J, Gerard K, et al. Efficacy of a mixed amphetamine salts compound in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2001;58(8):775–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer T, Biederman J, Wilens T, Doyle R, Surman C, Prince J, et al. A large, double-blind, randomized clinical trial of methylphenidate in the treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(5):456–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer TJ, Adler LA, McGough JJ, Muniz R, Jiang H, Pestreich L. Efficacy and safety of dexmethylphenidate extended-release capsules in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006a;61(12):1380–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spencer TJ, Wilens TE, Biederman J, Weisler RH, Read SC, Pratt R. Efficacy and safety of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) in the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescent patients: a 4-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Clin Ther. 2006b;28(2):266–79.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stein MA, McGough JJ. The pharmacogenomic era: promise for personalizing attention deficit hyperactivity disorder therapy. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am. 2008;17(2):475–90, xi–xii.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson JM, Hechtman L. Using long-acting stimulants: does it change ADHD treatment outcome? Can Child Adolesc Psychiatr Rev. 2005;14 Suppl 1:2–3.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson JM, Volkow ND. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of stimulants: Implications for the design of new treatments for ADHD. Behav Brain Res. 2002;130(1–2):73–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson J, Arnold LE, Kraemer H, Hechtman L, Molina B, Hinshaw S, et al. Evidence, interpretation, and qualification from multiple reports of long-term outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with ADHD (MTA): part I: executive summary. J Atten Disord. 2008a;12(1):4–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson J, Arnold LE, Kraemer H, Hechtman L, Molina B, Hinshaw S, et al. Evidence, interpretation, and qualification from multiple reports of long-term outcomes in the Multimodal Treatment Study of children with ADHD (MTA): part II: supporting details. J Atten Disord. 2008b;12(1):15–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor FB, Russo J. Comparing guanfacine and dextroamphetamine for the treatment of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2001;21(2):223–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thaithumyanon P, Limpongsanurak S, Praisuwanna P, Punnahitanon S. Perinatal effects of amphetamine and heroin use during pregnancy on the mother and infant. J Med Assoc Thai. 2005;88(11):1506–13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tillman R, Geller B. Controlled study of switching from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar I disorder phenotype during 6-year prospective follow-up: rate, risk, and predictors. Dev Psychopathol. 2006;18(4):1037–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Triolo SJ. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adulthood: a practitioner’s handbook. Philadelphia: Brunner-Routledge; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner D. A review of the use of modafinil for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Expert Rev Neurother. 2006;6(4):455–68.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner DC, Robbins TW, Clark L, Aron AR, Dowson J, Sahakian BJ. Cognitive enhancing effects of modafinil in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology. 2003;165(3):260–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turner DC, Clark L, Dowson J, Robbins TW, Sahakian BJ. Modafinil improves cognition and response inhibition in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55(10):1031–40.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyaya HP. Substance use disorders in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: implications for treatment and the role of the primary care physician. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;10(3):211–21.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van de Glind, G., Kooij, J. J. S., Duin, D. v., Goossensen, A. & Carpentier, P. J. (2004). (Protocol ADHD in Addiction. Screening, diagnostic assessment and treatment in outpatient en clinical addiction centers, in Dutch). Utrecht: Trimbos Instituut.

    Google Scholar 

  • van der Feltz-Cornelis CM, Aldenkamp AP. Effectiveness and safety of methylphenidate in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in patients with epilepsy: an open treatment trial. Epilepsy Behav. 2006;8(3):659–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Heijden KB, Smits MG, Van Someren EJW, Gunning WB. Idiopathic chronic sleep onset insomnia in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a circadian rhythm sleep disorder. Chronobiol Int. 2005;22(3):559–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van der Heijden KB, Smits MG, Van Someren EJW, Ridderinkhof KR, Gunning WB. Effect of melatonin on sleep, behavior, and cognition in ADHD and chronic sleep-onset insomnia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(2):233–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Gelder MM, Reefhuis J, Caton AR, Werler MM, Druschel CM, Roeleveld N. Maternal periconceptional illicit drug use and the risk of congenital malformations. Epidemiology. 2009;20(1):60–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Reekum R, Links PS. N of 1 study: methylphenidate in a patient with borderline personality disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Can J Psychiatry. 1994;39(3):186–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Veen MM, Kooij JJS, Boonstra AM, Gordijn M, Van Someren EJW. Disrupted circadian rhythm in adults with ADHD and chronic sleep onset insomnia. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(11):1091–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verbeeck W, Tuinier S, Bekkering GE. Antidepressants in the treatment of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Adv Ther. 2009;26(2):170–84.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verster JC, Bekker EM, de Roos M, Minova A, Eijken EJ, Kooij JJ, et al. Methylphenidate significantly improves driving performance of adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a randomized crossover trial. J Psychopharmacol. 2008;22(3):230–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Ding YS, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Logan J, Gatley JS, et al. Is methylphenidate like cocaine? Studies on their pharmacokinetics and distribution in the human brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1995;52(6):456–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang G, Ding Y, Gatley SJ. Mechanism of action of methylphenidate: insights from PET imaging studies. J Atten Disord. 2002;6 Suppl 1:S31–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Swanson JM. Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Mol Psychiatry. 2004;9(6):557–69.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress AR, et al. Dopamine increases in striatum do not elicit craving in cocaine abusers unless they are coupled with cocaine cues. Neuroimage. 2008;39(3):1266–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • von Schantz M. Phenotypic effects of genetic variability in human clock genes on circadian and sleep parameters. J Genet. 2008;87(5):513–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Waxmonsky JG. Nonstimulant therapies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adults. Essent Psychopharmacol. 2005;6(5):262–76.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber W, Newmark S. Complementary and alternative medical therapies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2007;54(6):983–1006, xii.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weber W, Vander Stoep A, McCarty RL, Weiss NS, Biederman J, McClellan J. Hypericum perforatum (St Johnís wort) for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc. 2008;299(22):2633–41.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weisler RH, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Wilens TE. Long-term cardiovascular effects of mixed amphetamine salts extended release in adults with ADHD. CNS Spectr. 2005;10(12 Suppl 20):35–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weisler RH, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Chrisman AK, et al. Mixed amphetamine salts extended-release in the treatment of adult ADHD: a randomized, controlled trial. CNS Spectr. 2006;11(8):625–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss G, Hechtman L. Hyperactive children grown up. ADHD in children, adolescents and adults. 2nd ed. New York: Guilford Press; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE. Impact of ADHD and its treatment on substance abuse in adults. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004;65 Suppl 3:38–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Decker MW. Neuronal nicotinic receptor agonists for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: focus on cognition. Biochem Pharmacol. 2007;7:7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Biederman J, Mick E, Spencer TJ. A systematic assessment of tricyclic antidepressants in the treatment of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1995a;183(1):48–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Biederman J, Spencer TJ, Prince J. Pharmacotherapy of adult attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995b;15(4):270–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Biederman J. Pharmacotherapy of adult ADHD. In: Nadeau KG, editor. A comprehensive guide to attention deficit disorder in adults: Research, diagnosis, and treatment. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel, Inc.; 1995c. p. 168–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Biederman J, Prince J, Spencer TJ, Faraone SV, Warburton R, et al. Six-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of desipramine for adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(9):1147–53.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Spencer TJ, Biederman J, Girard K, Doyle R, Prince J, et al. A controlled clinical trial of bupropion for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(2):282–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Gunawardene S. Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of the literature. Pediatrics. 2003a;111(1):179–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Prince JB, Spencer T, Van Patten SL, Doyle R, Girard K, et al. An open trial of bupropion for the treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2003b;54(1):9–16.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens T, McBurnett K, Stein M, Lerner M, Spencer T, Wolraich M. ADHD treatment with once-daily OROS methylphenidate: final results from a long-term open-label study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2005a;44(10):1015–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Haight BR, Horrigan JP, Hudziak JJ, Rosenthal NE, Connor DF, et al. Bupropion XL in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005b;57(7):793–801.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Hammerness PG, Biederman J, Kwon A, Spencer TJ, Clark S, et al. Blood pressure changes associated with medication treatment of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005c;66(2):253–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Prince JB, Spencer TJ, Biederman J. Stimulants and sudden death: what is a physician to do? Pediatrics. 2006a;118(3):1215–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Verlinden MH, Adler LA, Wozniak PJ, West SA. ABT-089, a neuronal nicotinic receptor partial agonist, for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: results of a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry. 2006b;59(11):1065–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Zusman RM, Hammerness PG, Podolski A, Whitley J, Spencer TJ, et al. An open-label study of the tolerability of mixed amphetamine salts in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and treated primary essential hypertension. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006c;67(5):696–702.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens TE, Adler LA, Weiss MD, Michelson D, Ramsey JL, Moore RJ, et al. Atomoxetine treatment of adults with ADHD and comorbid alcohol use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;96(1–2):145–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wingo AP, Ghaemi SN. Frequency of stimulant treatment and of stimulant-associated mania/hypomania in bipolar disorder patients. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2008;41(4):37–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winterstein AG, Gerhard T, Shuster J, Johnson M, Zito JM, Saidi A. Cardiac safety of central nervous system stimulants in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2007;120(6):e1494–501.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wirtz-Justice A, Benedetti F, Terman M. Chronotherapeutics for affective disorders. A clinicianís manual for light and wake therapy. Basel: Karger; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf U, Golombek U, Diefenbacher A. Diagnosis and treatment of the attention-deficit/hyperactivity syndrome (ADHS) in adults with drug addiction in in-patient and out-patient setting. Psychiatr Prax. 2006;33(5):240–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Program and Expertise Center Adult ADHD PsyQ, The Hague, The Netherlands

    J. J. Sandra Kooij

Authors
  1. J. J. Sandra Kooij
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kooij, J.J.S. (2013). Treatment. In: Adult ADHD. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-4138-9_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-4137-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-4138-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation