Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Avicenna’s pharmacological approach to memory enhancement

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Neurological Sciences Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In recent decades, the number of patients with dementia has significantly risen. Current treatments for dementia are not curative and there still is place for development of medications. Throughout the ages, several medical disciplines have systematized and codified medical knowledge acquired throughout centuries of trial and error. Revisiting these disciplines might help in gaining insight for development of medications and other therapeutic strategies. The present study aims to show the possible benefits of an immanent understanding of the approach towards memory and dementias taken by humoral medical discourse in the Islamicate world. This study presents how brain function was theorized in the medieval Islamicate world. Afterwards, a brief history of the theory of the inner senses and of humoral medicine is briefly presented. Then the definition of memory and its localization within the brain as theorized in the framework of humoral medicine is closely studied. To demonstrate the possible advantages of the study of the inner logic of humoral medicine, ten medicinal plants are chosen and discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Saddok BJ, Saddok VA (2007) Kaplan and Sadock’s synopsis of psychiatry, 10th edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia

  2. Boller F, Forbes MM (1998) History of dementia and dementia in history: an overview. J Neurol Sci 158:125–133. doi:10.1016/s0022-510x(98)00128-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Anderson EN Jr (1987) Why is humoral medicine so popular? Soc Sci Med 25(4):331–337. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(87)90271-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Anderson EN (1984) Heating and cooling foods re-examined. Soc Sci Inf 23(4–5):755–773. doi:10.1177/053901884023004006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Kemp S, Fletcher GJO (1993) The medieval theory of the inner senses. Am J Psychol 106(4):559–576. doi:10.2307/1422969

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Green CD (2003) Where did the ventricular localization of mental faculties come from? J Hist Behav Sci 39(2):131–142. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10088

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Black DL (1993) Estimation (Wahm) in Avicenna: the logical and psychological dimensions. Dialogue 32:219–258. doi:10.1017/s0012217300014414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Pormann PE (2013) Avicenna on medical practice, epistemology, and the physiology of the inner senses. In: Adamson P (ed) Interpreting Avicenna: critical essays. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 91–108

  9. Di Martino C (2007) Memory and recollection in Ibn Sina’s and Ibn Rushd’s philosophical texts translated into Latin in the 12th and 13th Centuries: a perspective in the doctrine of the internal senses in Arabic psychological science. In: Lagerlund H (ed) Forming the mind: essays on the internal senses and the mind/body problem from Avicenna to the medical enlightenment. Springer, The Netherlands, pp 17–26

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  10. Avicenna (1990) Al-qānūn fi-l-ṭibb (Canon of Medicine). Institute of History of Medicine and Medical Research New Delhi; Book one, 123–130; Book two, pp 33–403; Book three, pp 1–91

  11. Pormann PE (2011) The formation of the Arabic pharmacology between tradition and innovation. Ann Sci 68(4):493–515. doi:10.1080/00033790.2011.594619

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Temkin O (1953) Greek medicine as science and craft. Isis 44(3):213–225. doi:10.1086/348221

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Longrigg J (2003) Greek rational medicine: philosophy and medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians. Taylor and Francis, London

    Google Scholar 

  14. Lloyd GE (1964) The hot and the cold, the dry and the wet in Greek philosophy. J Hell Stud 84:92–106. doi:10.2307/627697

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Teigen PM (1987) Taste and quality in 15th- and 16th- Century galenic pharmacology. Pharm Hist 29(2):60–68

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Wills A (1999) Herophilus, erasistratus, and the birth of neuroscience. The Lancet 354(9191):1719–1720. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(99)02081-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Gross CG (1995) Aristotle on the brain. The Neuroscientist 1(4):245–250. doi:10.1177/107385849500100408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Rocca J (2003) Galen on the brain: anatomical knowledge and physiological speculation in the second Century AD. Brill, Leiden

    Google Scholar 

  19. Freemon FR (1994) Galen’s ideas on neurological function. J Hist Neurosci 3(4):263–271. doi:10.1080/09647049409525619

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Manderson L (1987) Hot-cold food and medical theories: overview and introduction. Soc Sci Med 25(4):329–330

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Clarke E, Dewhurst K (1972) An illustrated history of brain function. Sandford Publications, Oxford, p 21

  22. Shukla PK, Khanna VK, Ali MM, Maurya R, Khan MY, Srimal RC (2006) Neuroprotective effect of Acorus calamus against middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced ischaemia in rat. Hum Exp Toxicol 25:187–194. doi:10.1191/0960327106ht613oa

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Cho J, Kim YH, Kong JY, Yang CH, Park CG (2002) Protection of cultured rat cortical neurons from cytotoxicity by asarone, a major essential oil component in the rhizomes of Acorus gramineus. Life Sci 71:591–599. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(02)01729-0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Liu ZB, Niu WM, Yang XH, Wang Y, Wang WG (2010) Study on perfume stimulating olfaction with volatile oil of Acorus gramineus for treatment of the Alzheimer’s disease rat. J Tradit Chin Med 30:283–287. doi:10.1016/S0254-6272(10)60057-X

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sundaramahalingam M, Ramasundaram S, Rathinasamy SD, Natarajan RP, Somasundaram T (2013) Role of Acorus calamus and alpha-asarone on hippocampal dependent memory in noise stress exposed rats. Pak J Biol Sci 16:770–778. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-13-236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Geng Y, Li C, Liu J, Xing G, Zhou L, Dong M, Li X, Niu Y (2010) Beta-asarone improves cognitive function by suppressing neuronal apoptosis in the beta-amyloid hippocampus injection rats. Biol Pharm Bull 33:836–843. doi:10.1248/bpb.33.836

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Yang YX, Chen YT, Zhou XJ, Hong CL, Li CY (2013) Guo JY (2013) Beta-asarone, a major component of Acorus tatarinowii Schott, attenuates focal cerebral ischemia induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats. BMC Complement Altern Med 13:236. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-13-236

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Hancianu M, Cioanca O, Mihasan M, Hritcu L (2013) Neuroprotective effects of inhaled lavender oil on scopolamine-induced dementia via anti-oxidative activities in rats. Phytomedicine 20:446–452. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.12.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Hritcu L, Cioanca O, Hancianu M (2012) Effects of lavender oil inhalation on improving scopolamine-induced spatial memory impairment in laboratory rats. Phytomedicine 19:529–534. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.02.002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Kashani MS, Tavirani MR, Talaei SA, Salami M (2011) Aqueous extract of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) improves the spatial performance of a rat model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurosci Bull 27:99–106. doi:10.1007/s12264-011-1149-7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Vakili A, Sharifat S, Akhavan MM, Bandegi AR (2014) Effect of lavender oil (Lavandula angustifolia) on cerebral edema and its possible mechanisms in an experimental model of stroke. Brain Res 1548:56–62. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2013.12.019

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Wang D, Yuan X, Liu T, Liu L, Hu Y, Wang Z, Zheng Q (2012) Neuroprotective activity of lavender oil on transient focal cerebral ischemia in mice. Molecules 17:9803–9817. doi:10.3390/molecules17089803

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Purushothuman S, Nandasena C, Peoples CL, El Massri N, Johnstone DM, Mitrofanis J, Stone J (2013) Saffron pre-treatment offers neuroprotection to Nigral and retinal dopaminergic cells of MPTP-treated mice. J Parkinsons Dis 3:77–83. doi:10.3233/JPD-130173

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Vakili A, Einali MR, Bandegi AR (2014) Protective effect of crocin against cerebral ischemia in a dose-dependent manner in a rat model of ischemic stroke. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis 23:106–113. doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2012.10.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Shati AA, Elsaid FG, Hafez EE (2011) Biochemical and molecular aspects of aluminium chloride-induced neurotoxicity in mice and the protective role of Crocus sativus L. extraction and honey syrup. Neuroscience 175:66–74. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.11.043

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Tashakori-Sabzevar F, Hosseinzadeh H, Sadat Motamedshariaty V, Reza Movassaghi A, Ahmad Mohajeri S (2013) Crocetin attenuates spatial learning dysfunction and hippocampal injury in a model of vascular dementia. Curr neurovasc res 10(4):325–334. doi:10.2174/15672026113109990032

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Papandreou MA, Tsachaki M, Efthimiopoulos S, Cordopatis P, Lamari FN, Margarity M (2011) Memory enhancing effects of saffron in aged mice are correlated with antioxidant protection. Behav Brain Res 219:197–204. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2011.01.007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Papandreou MA, Kanakis CD, Polissiou MG, Efthimiopoulos S, Cordopatis P, Margarity M, Lamari FN (2006) Inhibitory activity on amyloid-beta aggregation and antioxidant properties of Crocus sativus stigmas extract and its crocin constituents. J Agric Food Chem 54:8762–8768 (PubMed PMID: 17090119)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Akhondzadeh S, Sabet MS, Harirchian MH, Togha M, Cheraghmakani H, Razeghi S, Hejazi SSh, Yousefi MH, Alimardani R, Jamshidi A, Zare F, Moradi A (2010) Saffron in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: a 16-week, randomized and placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Pharm Ther 35:581–588. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01133.x

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hosseinzadeh H, Sadeghnia HR, Ghaeni FA, Motamedshariaty VS, Mohajeri SA (2012) Effects of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and its active constituent, crocin, on recognition and spatial memory after chronic cerebral hypoperfusion in rats. Phytother Res 26:381–386. doi:10.1002/ptr.3566 (Epub 2011 Jul 19)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Naghizadeh B, Mansouri MT, Ghorbanzadeh B, Farbood Y, Sarkaki A (2013) Protective effects of oral crocin against intracerebroventricular streptozotocin-induced spatial memory deficit and oxidative stress in rats. Phytomedicine 20:537–542. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2012.12.019

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Ghadrdoost B, Vafaei AA, Rashidy-Pour A, Hajisoltani R, Bandegi AR, Motamedi F, Haghighi S, Sameni HR, Pahlvan S (2011) Protective effects of saffron extract and its active constituent crocin against oxidative stress and spatial learning and memory deficits induced by chronic stress in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 667:222–229. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.05.012

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Pitsikas N, Zisopoulou S, Tarantilis PA, Kanakis CD, Polissiou MG, Sakellaridis N (2007) Effects of the active constituents of Crocus sativus L., crocins on recognition and spatial rats’ memory. Behav Brain Res 183:141–146. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2007.06.001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Vijayalakshmi SA, Bhat P, Chaturvedi A, Bairy K, Kamath S (2012) Evaluation of the effect of Ferula asafoetida Linn. gum extract on learning and memory in Wistar rats. Indian J Pharmacol 44 (1):82. doi:10.4103/0253-7613.91873

  45. Tayeboon GS, Tavakoli F, Hassani S, Khanavi M, Sabzevari O, Ostad SN (2013) Effects of cymbopogon citratus and ferula assa-foetida extracts on glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 49(9):706–715. doi:10.1007/s11626-013-9656-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Mahmoudi A, Hosseini-Sharifabad A, Monsef-Esfahani HR, Yazdinejad AR, Khanavi M, Roghani A, Beyer C, Sharifzadeh M (2011) Evaluation of systemic administration of Boswellia papyrifera extracts on spatial memory retention in male rats. J Nat Med 65:519–525. doi:10.1007/s11418-011-0533-y

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Jalili C, Salahshoor MR, Moradi S, Pourmotabbed A, Motaghi M (2014) The therapeutic effect of the aqueous extract of Boswellia serrata on the learning deficit in kindled rats. Int J Prev Med 5:563–568 (PubMed PMID: 24932387)

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Hosseini M, Shafei MN, Safari V, Taiarani Z, Kafami Ladani M, Sadeghian R (2012) The effects of olibanum administered to methimazole-treated dams during lactation on learning and memory of offspring rats. Nat Prod Res 26:1544–1548. doi:10.1080/14786419.2011.566223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Hosseini M, Hadjzadeh MA, Derakhshan M, Havakhah S, Rassouli FB, Rakhshandeh H, Saffarzadeh F (2010) The beneficial effects of olibanum on memory deficit induced by hypothyroidism in adult rats tested in Morris water maze. Arch Pharm Res 33:463–468. doi:10.1007/s12272-010-0317-z

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Moein P, Abbasi Fard S, Asnaashari A, Baratian H, Barekatain M, Tavakoli N, Moein H (2013) The effect of Boswellia Serrata on neurorecovery following diffuse axonal injury. Brain Inj 27:1454–1460. doi:10.3109/02699052.2013.825009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Moussaieff A, Shein NA, Tsenter J, Grigoriadis S, Simeonidou C, Alexandrovich AG, Trembovler V, Ben-Neriah Y, Schmitz ML, Fiebich BL, Munoz E, Mechoulam R, Shohami E (2008) Incensole acetate: a novel neuroprotective agent isolated from Boswellia carterii. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 28:1341–1352. doi:10.1038/jcbfm.2008.28

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Moussaieff A, Yu J, Zhu H, Gattoni-Celli S, Shohami E, Kindy MS (2012) Protective effects of incensole acetate on cerebral ischemic injury. Brain Res 1443:89–97. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.01.001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  53. Kennedy DO, Wake G, Savelev S, Tildesley NT, Perry EK, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2003) Modulation of mood and cognitive performance following acute administration of single doses of Melissa officinalis (Lemon balm) with human CNS nicotinic and muscarinic receptor-binding properties. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:1871–1881. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300230

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Tildesley NT, Perry EK, Wesnes KA (2002) Modulation of mood and cognitive performance following acute administration of Melissa officinalis (lemon balm). Pharmacol Biochem Behav 72:953–964. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(02)00777-3

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Orhan I, Aslan M (2009) Appraisal of scopolamine-induced antiamnesic effect in mice and in vitro antiacetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activities of some traditionally used Lamiaceae plants. J Ethnopharmacol 122:327–332. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2008.12.026

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Akhondzadeh S, Noroozian M, Mohammadi M, Ohadinia S, Jamshidi A, Khani M (2003) Melissa officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s disease: a double blind, randomised, placebo controlled trial. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 74(7):863–866. doi:10.1136/jnnp.74.7.863

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Bayat M, Azami Tameh A, Hossein Ghahremani M, Akbari M, Mehr SE, Khanavi M, Hassanzadeh G (2012) Neuroprotective properties of Melissa officinalis after hypoxic-ischemic injury both in vitro and in vivo. Daru 20:42. doi:10.1186/2008-2231-20-42

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. Yang Z, Xi J, Li J, Qu W (2009) Biphasic effect of citral, a flavoring and scenting agent, on spatial learning and memory in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 93:391–396. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.05.016

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Zeng GF, Zhang ZY, Lu L, Xiao DQ, Zong SH, He JM (2013) Protective effects of ginger root extract on Alzheimer disease-induced behavioral dysfunction in rats. Rejuvenation Res 16:124–133. doi:10.1089/rej.2012.1389

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Saenghong N, Wattanathorn J, Muchimapura S, Tongun T, Piyavhatkul N, Banchonglikitkul C, Kajsongkram T (2012) Zingiber officinale improves cognitive function of the middle-aged healthy women. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2012:383062. doi:10.1155/2012/383062

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Mehdizadeh M, Dabaghian F, Nejhadi A, Fallah-Huseini H, Choopani S, Shekarriz N, Molavi N, Basirat A, Mohammadzadeh Kazorgah F, Samzadeh-Kermani A, Soleimani Asl S (2012) Zingiber officinale alters 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in rat brain. Cell J 14:177–184. doi:10.1016/j.jns.2013.07.1071

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Wattanathorn J, Jittiwat J, Tongun T, Muchimapura S, Ingkaninan K (2011) Zingiber officinale mitigates brain damage and improves memory impairment in focal cerebral ischemic rat. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2011:429505. doi:10.1155/2011/429505

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Moon M, Kim HG, Choi JG, Oh H, Lee PK, Ha SK, Kim SY, Park Y, Huh Y, Oh MS (2014) 6-Shogaol, an active constituent of ginger, attenuates neuroinflammation and cognitive deficits in animal models of dementia. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 449:8–13. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.04.121

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Shim S, Kwon J (2012) Effects of [6]-shogaol on cholinergic signaling in HT22 cells following neuronal damage induced by hydrogen peroxide. Food Chem Toxicol 50:1454–1459. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2012.02.014

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Joshi H, Parle M (2006) Nardostachys jatamansi improves learning and memory in mice. J Med Food 9:113–118 (PubMed PMID: 16579738)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Salim S, Ahmad M, Zafar KS, Ahmad AS, Islam F (2003) Protective effect of Nardostachys jatamansi in rat cerebral ischemia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 74:481–486. doi:10.1016/S0091-3057(02)01030-4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Halder S, Mehta AK, Mediratta PK, Sharma KK (2012) Acute effect of essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata on cognition and pain in mice. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 385:587–593. doi:10.1007/s00210-012-0742-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Halder S, Mehta AK, Kar R, Mustafa M, Mediratta PK, Sharma KK (2011) Clove oil reverses learning and memory deficits in scopolamine-treated mice. Planta Med 77:830–834. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1250605

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Golechha M, Bhatia J, Arya DS (2012) Studies on effects of Emblica officinalis (Amla) on oxidative stress and cholinergic function in scopolamine induced amnesia in mice. J Environ Biol 33:95–100 (PubMed PMID: 23033650)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Vasudevan M, Parle M (2007) Effect of Anwala churna (Emblica officinalis GAERTN.): an ayurvedic preparation on memory deficit rats. Yakugaku Zasshi 127:1701–1707. doi:10.1248/yakushi.127.1701

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Vasudevan M, Parle M (2007) Memory enhancing activity of Anwala churna (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.): an Ayurvedic preparation. Physiol Behav 91:46–54. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.016

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research has been supported by Tehran University of Medical Sciences and Health Services Grant 92-02-96-23309.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Traditional Pharmacy, School of Traditional Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Roja Rahimi

  2. Persian Medicine and Pharmacy Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Roja Rahimi

  3. Research Training Group 1876: Early Concepts of Man and Nature: Universal, Local, Borrowed, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany

    Shahrzad Irannejad

  4. Memory and Behavioral Neurology Division, Roozbeh Hospital, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

    Maryam Noroozian

Authors
  1. Roja Rahimi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Shahrzad Irannejad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Maryam Noroozian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shahrzad Irannejad.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rahimi, R., Irannejad, S. & Noroozian, M. Avicenna’s pharmacological approach to memory enhancement. Neurol Sci 38, 1147–1157 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-017-2835-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-017-2835-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation