Abstract
The prevalence of behavioural and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) exceeds 50%. They cause distress to patients and caregivers, increase resource utilisation of various kinds, and form a high risk for accelerated psychiatric care through institutionalisation.
Although evidence for current pharmacological treatment is not strong and the construct of BPSD is still not very clear, future aspects of treatment of BPSD may be positive. If we look at overall success rates of the antipsychotics, the traditional antipsychotics have the highest combined success rate of 63.1%, whereas the novel antipsychotics have an overall success rate of 56.1%. Haloperidol is the drug with the highest success rate of 65.4%, although this drug is associated with parkinsonian adverse drug reactions. Newer antipsychotics show promise in treating BPSD, but more convincing evidence (e.g. from randomised clinical trials) is required.
We provide an overview of the clinical, epidemiological and economic aspects of BPSD and a review of the available literature on their pharmacological treatment. Although only 1 pharmacoeconomic study has been conducted on BPSD, it seems likely that these manifestations drastically increase the burden of dementia.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Fratiglioni L, De Ronchi D, Agüero-Torres H. Worldwide prevalence and incidence of dementia. Drugs Aging 1999; 15: 365–75
Stoppe G, Brandt CA, Staedt JH. Behavioural problems associated with dementia: the role of newer antipsychotics. Drugs Aging 1999; 14: 41–54
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group. Canadian study of health and aging: study methods and prevalence of dementia. CMAJ 1994; 150: 899–913
Alloul K, Sauriol L, Kennedy W, et al. Alzheimer’s disease: a review of the disease, its epidemiology and economic impact. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 1998; 27: 189–221
Swearer JM, Drachman DA, O’Donnell BF, et al. Troublesome and destructive behaviours in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 784–90
Cohen-Mansfield J, Billig N. Agitated behaviors in the elderly I. A conceptual review. J Am Geriatr Soc 1986; 34: 711–21
Cummings JL, Mega M, Gray K, et al. The neuropsychiatric inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology 1994; 44: 2308–14
Tariot PN, Blazina L. The psychopathology of dementia. In: Morris JC, editor. Handbook of dementing illnesses. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1994: 461–75
Patterson M, Bolger J. Assessment of behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1994; 8: 4–20
Reisberg B, Borenstein J, Salob S, et al. Behavioural symptoms in Alzheimers disease: phenomenology and treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 5: 9–15
Merriam A, Aronson M, Gasten P, et al. The psychiatric symptoms of Alzheimers disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 7–12
Rovner BW. Behavioral and psychiatric disability in Alzheimers disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry 1992; 25: 247–55
Teri L, Borson S, Kiyak A. Behavioral disturbance, cognitive dysfunction, and functional skill: prevalence and relationship in Alzheimer’s disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1989; 37: 109–16
Burns A, Jacoby R, Levy R. Psychiatric phenomena in Alzheimer disease: IV. Disorders of behaviour. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157: 81–6, 92–4
Devanand DP, Brockington CD, Moody BJ. Behavioral syndromes in Alzheimer disease. Int Psychogeriatr 1992; 4: 161–84
Wagner A, Teri L, Orr-Rainey N. Behavior problems of residents with dementia in special care units. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1995; 9: 121–7
Deutsch L, Rovner B. Agitation and other noncognitive abnormalities in Alzheimer’s disease. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1991; 14: 341–51
Rovner BW, Kafonek S, Filipp L. Prevalence of mental illness in a community nursing home. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143(11): 1446–9
Rovner BW, Katz IR. Psychiatric disorders in the nursing home: a selective review of studies related to clinical care. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1993; 8: 75–87
Ernst R, Hay J. The US economic and social costs of Alzheimer’s disease revisited. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 1261–4
Whitehouse P. Pharmacoeconomics ofdementia. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1997; 11: S22–S33
Anonymous. Guidelines for Alzheimer’s disease management. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Alzheimer’s Association, 1999
Patterson C, Gauthier S, Bergman H, et al. The recognition, assessment and management of dementing disorders: conclusions from the Canadian Consensus Conference on Dementia. CMAJ 1999; 160: S1–S5
American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias of late life. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154 Suppl.: 1–39
Tariot P, Gaile SE, Castelli NA, et al. Treatment of agitation in dementia. New Dir Ment Health Serv 1997; 76: 109–23
Alexopoulos G, Silver J, Kahn D, et al., editors Treatment of agitation in older persons with dementia. Postgrad Med (Special issue), 1998
Board of Directors of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, Clinical Practice Committee of the American Geriatrics Society, and committee on long-term care and treatment for the elderly. Psychotherapeutic medications in the nursing home. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 946–9
Small G, Rabins P, Barry P, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of Alzheimer disease and related disorders: consensus statement of the American Association for Geriatric Psychiatry, the Alzheimer’s Association, and the American Geriatrics Society. JAMA 1997; 278: 1363–71
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1994
American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias of late life. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1–39
Ott A, Breteler M, van Harskamp F, et al. Prevalence of Alzheimers disease and vascular dementia: association with education: the Rotterdam Study. BMJ 1995; 310: 970–3
Costa P, Williams T, Albert M, et al. Recognition and initial assessment of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Rockville (MD): AHCPR Publication, 1996: 97–107
Shergill S, Mullan E, D’Ath P. et al. What is the clinical prevalence of Lewy body dementia? Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9: 907–12
Ballard C, Holmes C, McKeith I, et al. Psychiatric morbidity in dementia with Lewy bodies: a prospective clinical and neuropathological comparative study with Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1039–45
McKeith IG, Fairbairn A, Perry R, et al. Neuroleptic sensitivity in patients with senile dementia of Lewy body type. BMJ 1992; 305: 673–8
Gomez-Tortosa E, Newell K, Irizarry MC, et al. Clinical and quantitative pathologic correlates of dementia with Lewy bodies. Neurology 1999; 53: 1284–91
Growdon JH. Biomarkers of Alzheimers disease. Arch Neurol 1999; 56: 281–3
Ballard C, Oyebode F. Psychotic symptoms in patients with dementia. Int J Geriatr 1995; 142: 202–11
Teri L, Larson E, Reifler B. Behavioral disturbance in dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988; 36: 1–6
Rapp M, Flint A, Herrmann N, et al. Behavioural disturbances in the demented elderly: phenomenology, pharmacotherapy, and behavioural management. Can J Psychiatry 1992; 37: 651–7
Naranjo CA, Herrmann N, Mittmann N, et al. Recent advances in geriatric psychopharmacology. Drugs Aging 1995; 7: 184–202
Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG. Acontrolled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer disease. N Engl J Med 1997; 336: 1216–22
Kanowski S, Herrmann WM, Stephan K. Proof of efficacy of the ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 in outpatients suffering from mild to moderate primary degenerative dementia of the Alzheimer type or multi-infarct dementia. Pharmacopsychiatry 1996; 29: 47–56
LeBars PL, Katz MM, Berman N, et al. A placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized trial of an extract of ginkgo biloba for dementia. JAMA 1997; 278: 1327–32
Van Reekum R, Black SE, Conn D. Cognition-enhancing drugs in dementia: a guide to the near future. Can J Psychiatry 1997; 42: 35S–50S
Weiner M, Koss E, Wild K, et al. Measures of psychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer patients: a review. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1996; 10: 20–30
Herrmann N, Lanctot KL, Naranjo CA. Behavioural disorders in demented elderly patients: current issues in pharmacotherapy. CNS Drugs 1996; 6: 280–300
Teri L, Truax P, Logsdon R, et al. Assessment of behavioural problems in dementia: the revised memory and behaviour problem checklist. Psychol Aging 1992; 4: 622–31
Tariot P, Teri L, Porsteinsson A, et al. Measurement of behavioural disturbance in chronic care populations. J Ment Health 1996: 2: 61–7
Reisberg B, Borenstein J, Franssen E, et al. BEHAVE-AD: a clinical rating scale for the assessment of pharmacologically remediable behavior symptomatology in Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimer’s disease problems, prospects and perspectives. New York: Plenum, 1987: 1–16
Finkel S, Lyons J, Anderson R. A brief agitation rating scale (BARS) for nursing home elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 1993; 41: 50–2
Tariot PN, Mack JL, Patterson MB, et al. The CERAD Behavior Rating Scale for Dementia (BRSD). Gerontologist 1992; 32: 160
Alexopoulos GS, Abrams RC, Young RC, et al. Cornell Scale for Depression in Dementia. Biol Psychiatry 1988; 23: 271–84
Loreck DJ, Bylsma FW, Folstein MF. A new scale for comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in Alzheimer’s disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 2: 60–74
Levin HS, High WM, Goethe KE. The neurobehavioral rating s cale: assessment of behavioral sequelae of head injury by the clinician. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1987; 183–93
Yudofsky S, Kopecky H, Kunik M, et al. The overt agitation severity scale for the objective rating of agitation. J Neuropsychiatr Clin Neurosci 1997; 9: 541–8
Rosen J, Burgio L, Kollar M. The Pittsburgh agitation scale: a userfriendly instrument for rating agitation in dementia patients. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 2: 52–9
Teri L, Truax P, Logsdon R, et al. Assessment of behavioral problems in dementia: the revised memory and behavior problems checklist. Psychol Aging 1992; 7: 627–31
Ferris SH, Mackell JA. Behavioral outcomes in clinical trials for Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1997; 11: S10–S5
Mega MS, Cummings JL, Fiorello T, et al. The spectrum of behavioral changes in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 1996; 46: 130–5
McShane R, Keene J, Gedling K, et al. Do neuroleptic drugs hasten cognitive decline in dementia? Prospective study with necropsy follow-up. BMJ 1997; 314: 266–70
Hope T, Keene J, Fairburn C, et al. Natural history of behavioral changes and psychiatric symptoms in Alzheimer disease: a longitudinal study. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 174: 39–44
Asberg M, Schalling D, Traskmann-Bendz L. Psychobiology of suicide, impulsivity, and related phenomena. In: Meltzer HY, editor. Psychopharmacology: third generation of progress. New York: Raven Press, 1987: 655–88
Brown GL, Goodwill FK, Ballenger JC. Aggression in humans correlates with cerebrospinal fluid amine metabolites. Psychiatry Res 1979; 1: 131–9
Brown GL, Ebert MH, Goyer PF. Aggression, suicide, and serotonin: relationships to CSF amine metabolites. Psychiatry Res 1982; 139: 741–6
Van Praag HM. Auto aggression and CSF 5-HIAA in depression and schizophrenia. Psychopharmacol Bull 1986; 22: 669–73
Roy-Byrne P, Post RM, Rubinow DR. CSF 5-HIAA and personal and family history of suicide in affectively ill patients: a negative study. Psychiatry Res 1983; 10: 263–74
Esiri MM. The basis for behavioural disturbances in dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 61: 127–30
Ryden MB, Bossenmaier M, Mclachan C. Aggressive behavior in cognitively impaired nursing home residents. Res Nurs Health 1991; 14: 87–95
Cohen-Mansfield J, Billig N. Agitated behaviors in the elderly. II. Preliminary results in the cognitively deteriorated. J Am Geriatr Soc 1986; 34: 722–7
Rubin EH, Kinscherf DA. Psychopathology of very mild dementia of the Alzheimer type. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146: 1017–21
Ballard C, O’Brien J. Treating behavioural and psychological signs in Alzheimer’s disease. BMJ 1999; 319: 138–9
Food and Drug Administration. Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act guidelines of 1987. 54 Federal Register. Rockville (MD) 1989: 5316–36
Hamilton L, Bennett J. Acetophenazine for hyperactive geriatric patients. Geriatrics 1962; 17: 596–601
Barnes R, Veith R, Okimoto J, et al. Efficacy of antipsychotic medications in behaviourally disturbed dementia patients. Am J Psychiatr 1982; 139: 1170–4
Hamilton L, Bennett J. The use of trifluoperazine in geriatric patients with chronic brain syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc 1962; 10: 140–7
Devanand DP, Marder K, Micheals KS, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled dose-comparison trial of haloperidol for psychosis and disruptive behaviors in alzheimers disease. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1512–20
De Deyn P, Rabheru K, Rasmussen A, et al. A randomized trial of risperidone, placebo, and haloperidol for behaviour symptoms of dementia. Neurology 1999; 53: 946–55
Petrie W, Ban T, Berney S, et al. Loxapine in psychogeriatrics: a placebo- and standard-controlled clinical investigation. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982; 2: 122–6
Sugerman A, Williams B, Adlerstein A. Haloperidol in the psychiatric disorders of old age. Am J Psychiatry 1964; 120: 1190–2
Finkel SI, Lyons J, Anderson R, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of thiothixene in agitated, demented nursing home patients. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1995; 10: 129–36
Rada R, Kellner R. Thiothixene in the treatment of geriatric patients with chronic organic brain syndrome. J Am Geriatr Soc 1976; 3: 105–7
Katz IR, Jeste DV, Mintzer JE, et al. Comparison of risperidone and placebo for psychosis and behavioral disturbances associated with dementia: a randomized, double-blind trial. Risperidone Study Group. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 107–15
Street J, Clark WS, Gannon KS, et al. Olanzapine treatment of psychotic and behavioural symptoms in patients with Alzheimer’s disease in nursing care facilities: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. The HGEU Study Group. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 968–76
Tariot PN, Erb R, Leibovici A. Carbamazepine treatment of agitation in nursing home patients with dementia: a preliminary study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 42: 1160–6
Tariot PN, Erb R, Podgorski C, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of carbamazepine for agitation and aggression in dementia. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 54–61
Chambers CA, Bain J, Roshottom R. Carbamazepine in senile dementia and overactivity: a placebo controlled double blind trial. Med Sci 1982; 10: 505–6
Class C, Schneider L, Farlow M. Optimal management of behavioural disorders associated with dementia. Drugs Aging 1997; 10: 95–106
Stoppe G, Staedt JH. Psychopharmakotherapie von Verhaltensstörungen bei Demenzkranken. Z Gerontol Geriat 1999; 32: 153–8
Tariot PN, Schneider L, Katz I. Anticonvulsant and other nonneuroleptic treatment ofagitation in dementia. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1995; 8: S28–S39
Kahn D, Stevenson E, Douglas CJ. Effect of sodium valproate in three patients with organic brain syndromes. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145: 1010–1
Mazure CM, Druss BG, Cellar JS. Valproate treatment of older psychotic patients with organic mental syndromes and behavioral dyscontrol. J Am Geriatr Soc 1992; 40: 914–6
Sovner R. The use of valproate in the treatment of mentally retarded persons with typical and atypical bipolar disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50: 40S–3S
Mellow A, Solano-Lopez C, Davis S. Sodium valproate in the treatment of behavioral disturbance in dementia. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1993; 6: 205–9
Lott AD, McElroy SL, Keys MA. Valproate in the treatment of agitation in elderly patients with dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995; 7: 314–9
Herrmann N. Valproic acid treatment of agitation in dementia. Can J Psychiatry 1998; 43: 69–72
Kasckow J, Mcelroy S, Cameron R, et al. A pilot study of the use of divalproex sodium in the treatment of behavioural agitation in elderly patients with dementia: assessment with the behave-AD and CGI rating scales. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1997; 58: 981–9
Grossman F. A review of anticonvulsants in treating agitated demented elderly patients. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18: 600–6
Gray S, Lai K, Larson E. Drug-induced cognition disorders in the elderly: incidence, prevention, and management. Drug Saf 1999; 21: 101–22
Tingle D. Trazodone in dementia [letter]. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 482
Simpson DM, Foster D. Improvement in organically disturbed behavior with trazodone treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 191–3
Greenwald BS, Marin DB, Silverman SM. Serotonergic treatment of screaming and banging in dementia. Lancet 1986; 2: 1464–5
Tariot PN. Treatment strategies for agitation and psychosis in dementia. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57Suppl. 14: 21–9
Mintzer JE, Brawman-Mintzer O. Agitation as a possible expression of generalized anxiety disorder in demented elderly patients: toward atreatment approach. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57: 55–63
Salzman, C. Treatment of the elderly agitated patient. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48: 19–22
Pozuelo L, Franco K, Palmer R. Agitated dementia: drug vs. nondrug treatment. Cleveland Clin J Med 1998; 65: 191–9
Herrmann N, Lanctôt KL. The management of behavioral disturbances in dementia: the role of serotonergic therapies. IDrugs 1998; 1: 214–20
Lawlor BA, Radcliffe J, Molchan SE. A pilot placebo controlled study of trazodone and buspirone in Alzheimer disease. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9: 55–9
Sultzer D, Gray KF, Gunay I. A double-blind comparison of trazodone and haloperidol for treatment of agitation in patients with dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997; 5: 60–9
Nyth AL, Gottfries GC. The clinical efficacy of citalopram in treatment of emotional disturbances in dementia disorders: a Nordic multicentre study. Br J Psychiatry 1990; 157: 894–901
Olafsson K, Jorgensen S, Jensen HV. Fluvoxamine inthe treatment of demented elderly patients: a double-blind placebocontrolled study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1994; 9: 590–1
Zayas E, Grossberg G. Treating the agitated Alzheimer patient. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57: 46–51
Covington J. Alleviating agitation, apprehension, and related symptoms in geriatric patients: a double-blind comparison of a phenothiazine and abenzodiazepine. South Med J 1975; 68: 719–24
Stotsky B. Multicenter study comparing thioridazine with diazepam and placebo in elderly, nonpsychotic patients with emotional and behavioral disorders. Clin Ther 1984; 6: 546–59
Hyman SE, Arana GW. Handbook of psychiatric drug therapy. Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1987
Schneider LS, Sobin PB. Non-neuroleptic medications in the management of agitation in Alzheimer disease and other dementia: a selective review. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1991; 6: 691–701
Goad D, Davis C, Liem P, et al. The use of selegiline in Alzheimer’s patients with behavior problems. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 342–5
Tariot PN, Cohen RM, Sunderland T. L-deprenyl in Alzheimer disease: preliminary evidence for behavioral change with monoamine oxidase B inhibition. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1987; 44: 427–33
Schneider LS, Pollock VE, Zemansky MF, et al. A pilot study of low-dose L-Deprenyl in Alzheimer’s disease. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1991; 4: 143–8
Cummings JL. The cholinergic hypothesis of neuropsychiatric symptoms in Alzheimers disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 6: S64–S78
Maixner S, Mellow A, Tandon R. The efficacy, safety, and tolerability of antipsychotics in the elderly. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 29–41
Abse D, Dahlstrom G. The value of chemotherapy in senile mental disturbances. JAMA 1960; 174: 2036–42
Schneider L, Pollock V, Lyness S. A meta-analysis of controlled trials of neuroleptic treatment in dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990; 28: 553–63
Sunderland T, Silver M. Neuroleptics in the treatment of dementia. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1988; 3: 79–88
Salzman C. Treatment of agitation in the elderly. Psychopharmacology: third generation of progress. New York: Raven Press, 1987: 1167–76
Lanctôt KL, Best T, Mittmann N, et al. Efficacy and safety of neuroleptics in behavioral disorders associated with dementia. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 550–61
Kumar V. Use of atypical antipsychotic agents in geriatric patients: a review. Int Geriatr Psychopharmacol 1997; 1: 15–23
Carlyle W, Ancill RJ, Sheldon L. Aggression in the demented patient: a double-blind study of loxapine versus haloperidol. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 8: 103–8
Smith G, Taylor C, Linkous P. Haloperidol versus thioridazine for the treatment of psychogeriatric patients: a double-blind clinical trial. Psychosomatics 1974; 15: 134–8
Cowley L, Glen R. Double-blind study of thioridazine and haloperidol in geriatric patients with a psychosis associated with organic brain syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1979; 40: 411–9
Avorn J, Monane M, Everitt DE, et al. Clinical assessment of extrapyramidal signs in nursing home patients given antipsychotic medication. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154: 1113–7
Grossberg G. The older patient with psychotic symptoms. Psychiatr Serv 1980; 46: 55–9
Oberholzer AF, Hendriksen C, Monsch AU, et al. Safety and effectiveness of low-dose clozapine in psychogeriatric patients: a preliminary study. Int Psychogeriatr 1992; 4: 187–95
Nacasch N, Dolberg O, Hirschmann S, et al. Clozapine for the treatment of agitated-depressed patients with cognitive impairment: a report of three cases. Clin Neuropharmacol 1998; 21: 132–4
Anonymous. Treatment of special populations with the atypical antipsychotics: Collaborative Working Group on Clinical Trial Evaluations. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59Suppl. 12: 46–52
Fischer P, Tauscher J, Kufferle B. Risperidone and tardive dyskinesia in organic psychosis. Pharmacopsychiatry 1998; 31: 70–1
Owens D. Extrapyramidal side effects and tolerability of risperidone: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55 Suppl.: 29S–35S
Zarate CAJ, Baldessarini RJ, Siegel AJ, et al. Risperidone in the elderly: a pharmacoepidemiologic study. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58: 311–7
Satterlee W, Reams S, Burns P, et al. A clinical update on olanzapine treatment in schizophrenia and in elderly Alzheimer’s disease patients. Psychopharmacol Bull 1995; 31: 534
Kinon B, Targum S, Basson B, et al. Olanzapine in the management of behavioural disturbances and/or psychosis in demented nursing home patients (slide presentation). 12th Congress of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology; 1999 Sep 21–5; London
Endale Geda Y, Rummans T. Pain: cause of agitation in elderly individuals with dementia. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1662–3
Parsa M, Bastani B. Quetiapine (Seroquel) in the treatment of psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 10: 216–9
McManus D, Arvanitis L, Kowalcyk B. Quetiapine, a novel antipsychotic: experience in elderly patients with psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 292–8
ALS Survival Guide. Seroquel shown to be effective for Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s [online document]. Available from: http://www.lougehrigsdisease.net/als_news/981215seroquel_shown_to_be_effective_f.htm [accessed 2001 Apr 9]
Goldstein J, Tariot PN, Salzman C, et al. Longterm results with Seroquel (quetiapine) in elderly patients with psychotic disorders [poster presentation]. Meeting of the International Psychogeriatric Association; 1999 Aug 15–20, Vancouver (BC)
Rogers T, De-Leon J, Atcher D. Possible interaction between warfarin and quetiapine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 382–3
Bulow K. Management of psychosis and agitation in elderly patients: a primary care perspective. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 22–5
Roper J, Shapira J, Chang B. Agitation in the demented patient. J Gerontol Nurs 1991; 17: 17–21
Teri L, Logsdon R, Whall A, et al. Treatment for agitation in dementia patients: a behaviour management approach. Psychotherapy 1998; 35: 436–43
Max W. The cost of Alzheimer’s disease: will drug treatment ease the burden? Pharmacoeconomics 1996; 9: 5–10
Busschbach J, Brouwer W, van der Donk A, et al. An outline for a cost-effectiveness analysis of a drug for patients with Alzheimer’s disease. Pharmacoeconomics 1998; 13: 21–34
Anonymous. Costs: measuring the economic burden of Alzheimer’s disease care. J Nurse Admin 1997; 27: 4
Rothstein Z, Prohovnik I, Davidson M, et al. The economic burden of Alzheimer’s disease in Israel. Isr J Med Sci 1996; 32: 1120–3
Max W, Webber P, Fox P. Alzheimer’s disease. The unpaid burden of caring. J Aging Health 1995; 7: 179–99
Ostbye T, Crosse E. Net economic costs of dementia in Canada. CMAJ 1994; 151: 1457–64
Ernst R, Hay J. The US economic and social costs of Alzheimer’s disease revisited. Am J Public Health 1994; 84: 1261–4
Canadian Study of Health and Aging Working Group. Canadian study of health and aging: study methods and prevalence of dementia. CMAJ 1994; 150: 899–913
Kronborg Andersen C, Sogaard J, Hansen E, et al. The cost of dementia in Denmark: the Odense study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 1999; 10: 295–304
Gray A, Fenn P. Alzheimer’s disease: the burden of illness in England. Health Trends 1993; 25: 31–7
Lanctôt KL, Herrmann N, Liu BA. Economic appraisal of pharmacologic therapy for behavioral disorders in dementia [abstract PII-34]. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 61: 173
Hu T, Huang L, Cartwright W. Evaluation of the costs of caring for the senile demented elderly: a pilot study. Gerontologist 1986; 26: 158–63
Huang L, Cartwright WS, Hu T. The economic cost of senile dementia in the United States, 1985. Public Health Rep 1988; 103: 3–7
Weinberger M, Gold DT, Divine GW, et al. Expenditure in caring for patients with dementia who live at home. Am J Public Health 1993; 83: 338–41
Drummond M, Mohide EA, Tew M, et al. Economic evaluation of a support program for caregivers of demented elderly. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 1991; 7: 209–19
Collins C, Stommel M. Out of pocket expenditures by family caregivers of dementia patients residing in the community. Home Health Care Serv Q 1991; 12: 29–43
Wimo A, Wallin J, Lundgren K, et al. Impact of day care on dementia patients costs, well being and relative’s views. Family Pract 1990; 7: 279–87
Chiu L, Tang K, Liu Y, et al. Cost comparisons between family-based care and nursing home care for dementia. J Adv Nurs 1999; 29: 1005–12
Holmberg H, Carlsson P. What are the effects of a changed age structure on costs and support to the elderly at home and in sheltered living in the year 2000. Socialstyrelsen 1993; 12: 59–76
Cohen CA, Gold DP, Shulman KI, et al. Factors determining the decision to institutionalize dementing individuals: a prospective study. Gerontologist 1999; 33: 714–20
Hux M, O’Brien B, Iskedjian M, et al. Relation between severity of Alzheimer’s disease and costs of caring. CMAJ 1998; 159: 457–65
Gutterman E, Markowitz J, Lewis B, et al. Cost of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementia in the managed medicare. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 1065–71
Wettstein A. Medical evaluation of dementia. Schweiz Rundsch Med Prax 1997; 86: 1335–9
Walker M, Salek S, Bayer A. A review of quality of life in Alzheimer’s disease. Part 1: issues in assessing disease impact. Pharmacoeconomics 1998; 14: 499–530
Salek S, Walker M, Bayer A. A review of quality of life in Alzheimer’s disease. Part II: issues in assessing drug effects. Pharmacoeconomics 1998; 14: 613–27
Haley WE, Levine EG, Brown SL, et al. Psychological, social, and health consequences of caring for a relative with senile dementia. J Am Geriatr Soc 1987; 35: 405–11
Anthony-Bergstone CR, Zarit SH, Gatz M. Symptoms of psychological distress among caregivers of dementia patients. Psychol Aging 1988; 3: 245–8
Bodnar JC, Kiecolt-Glaser JK. Caregiver depression after bereavement: chronic stress isn’t over when it’s over. Psychol Aging 1994; 9: 372–80
Graessel E. Home care of dementia and non dementia patients (part II): health and burden of family caregivers. Z Gerontol Geriatr 1998; 31: 57–62
Fenn P, Gray A. Estimating long-term cost savings from treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. A modelling approach. Pharmacoeconomics 1999; 16: 165–74
Neumann P, Hermann R, Berenbaum P, et al. Methods of cost-effectiveness analysis in the assessment of new drugs for Alzheimer’s disease. Psychiatric Serv 1997; 48: 1440–4
Einarson T, Shear NH, Oh P. Models for pharmacoeconomic analysis. Can J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 4: 25–9
Acknowledgements
K.L. Lanctôt is partially supported by the Kunin-Lunenfeld Applied Research Unit, Baycrest Centre for Geriatric Care.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Hemels, M.E.H., Lanctôt, K.L., Iskedjian, M. et al. Clinical and Economic Factors in the Treatment of Behavioural and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia. Drugs & Aging 18, 527–550 (2001). https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200118070-00006
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200118070-00006