ReviewCognition enhancers between treating and doping the mind
Introduction
This review has the aim to stimulate some reflections on the neurochemical and molecular bases of the human cognition and on the attempts that have been done and are actively pursued to modulate such function by the use of chemicals. While it is obvious to think to “memory pills” for the elderly, so popular in the last two decades, and to drugs to improve cognitive functions in demented people, the present trend and demand for drugs able to improve mental performance in normal adult people should also be carefully considered. In a quickly evolving and demanding society, the mass of information flooding daily from the media and Internet, and needed for the new generation of professionals is increasing the demand for drugs able to help the people to sustain mental performance. Moreover mental performance it is not just memory is also attention and problem solving ability (Fig. 1).
Section snippets
Drugs and memory
During learning and the formation of memories, our brain undergoes physical and chemical changes. Through a process called synaptic plasticity, involving signal transduction pathways and induction of gene expression, signal transmission at existing connections between certain neurons may become more efficient while other connections may be silenced, and new synapses may be formed between nerve cells. This process undergoes a continuous remodeling with time and new experiences. The ability to
Neurobiological aspects of human attention
Attention could be defined as a selective aspect of information processing where some things are privileged and some others are ignored. Traditionally it is considered that human attention could be divided in two categories, the first involving an overall attentional tone (tonic attention or vigilance), while the second involving selective attention, which could be spatial, object or modality addressed. Recently, another categorisation, based on networks, has been proposed. Three networks form
Neurobiologic aspects of human creativity: lessons learned from pathology
Creativity, as many other brain functions, may be conceived as a cognitive capability, and can be separated from other neural functions [75], [76], with which is, however, deeply intermingled (Fig. 1).
Little is known about the brain mechanisms underlying human creativity. Some researchers report that neuroscientific explanations of creativity are focused on hemispheric asymmetry. In this regard, Bogen and Bogen [77] claimed that a major obstacle to high creativity consisted in the left
The emerging role of bioinformatics in cognitive functions
As discussed in this review, the increasing interest on “smart drugs” is based on the concept that some medications available to patients with mental disorders may have a positive effect also in healthy people. This is an “hot” topic by different points of view and has enormous economical, ethical and scientific implications. On the other hand, many molecules are used without a clear knowledge of the biochemical/molecular mechanism of action. Despite the huge work done in the past years by the
Treating or enhancing?—ethical implications
Attempts to enhance human potential and performance trough “potions” date back from the ancient Greeks to present. A quick Internet survey offers a wide range of both approved and non-approved drugs (see text and Table 3 [128], [129], [130], [131], [132], [133], [134], [135], [136], [137], [138], [139], [140], [141], [142], [143], [144], [145], [146], [147], [148], [149], [150], [151], [152], [153], [154], [155], [156], [157], [158], [159], [160], [161], [162], [163], [164], [165], [166], [167]
Acknowledgements
Supported by the Ministry of University and Research (grant 2005051707 to SG) and by the UNIPV-Regione Lombardia Project on Material Science and Biomedicine.
Contributors: C. Lanni and S.C. Lenzken wrote the first draft of the manuscript and examined all the relevant literature. A. Pascale reviewed the section concerning memory mechanisms and ELAV proteins. M. Racchi checked the manuscript in all the parts concerning Alzheimer's disease and bioinformatics. I. Del Vecchio wrote the portions
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These authors contributed equally to this work.