Effect of ribotype on all-cause mortality following Clostridium difficile infection
Introduction
Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is recognized as a widespread cause of healthcare-associated diarrhoea in Europe and North America.1, 2 Despite an ongoing decrease in the number of cases diagnosed in England, C. difficile remains a significant cause of mortality; 2704 deaths in England and Wales mentioned CDI on the death certificate in 2010.3, 4 The actual number of deaths caused by CDI is likely to be higher as using certified cause of death can underestimate the true number of attributable deaths.5
Death at 30 days is one of the most frequently used outcomes for investigating mortality caused by CDI.6 Published estimates of 30-day mortality vary widely, from 4.7% to 42%.7, 8 Estimates also vary by country, with some of the highest reported 30-day mortality from the UK; one weighted average 30-day mortality estimate based on studies in the UK was 30%.6 This is consistent with a recent study based in North East England which estimated 30-day all-cause mortality to be 32.5%.9 Many of these studies were based on a single hospital or subset of patients, and did not examine the effect of ribotype on mortality following CDI.
Ribotyping offers a way of understanding the molecular epidemiology of CDI. This involves fingerprinting the 16S–23S rRNA gene intergenic spacer region to assign a ribotype.10 At least 116 ribotypes have been recognized, but the total number of different ribotypes is likely to be higher.11
The epidemiology of C. difficile ribotypes in North East England during 2009/10 has previously been described.12 The five most numerous ribotypes were 001 (15.6%), 106 (11.7%), 027 (10.6%), 015 (7.7%) and 078 (5.6%). The ribotype distribution changed over time; from July 2009 to December 2010, the proportions of ribotypes 002 and 015 decreased and the proportions of ribotypes 016 and 023 were found to increase.12
Although several studies have investigated the mortality associated with CDI, relatively few studies have compared mortality between ribotypes. Some ribotypes such as 027 are considered to be ‘hypervirulent’, based on evidence of increased resistance to the fluoroquinolone class of antibiotics, greater sporulation efficiency, increased toxin production and production of binary toxin.13, 14, 15, 16 There is some evidence that infection with ribotype 027 is associated with higher mortality rates.17, 18, 19, 20 However, no association between severe CDI and ribotype 027 was observed in a number of smaller studies.21, 22, 23
We conducted a retrospective population-based cohort study to estimate mortality following CDI and investigate the relationship between mortality and ribotype of CDI.
Section snippets
Study design and participants
The North East Ribotyping project aimed to ribotype all toxin-positive C. difficile samples identified in the north east of England between April 2009 and March 2012 and has been previously described.12 This differs from the Clostridium difficile Ribotyping Network (CDRN) which requires samples to meet certain criteria before ribotyping.24 All samples from one hospital were excluded as toxin-negative samples could not be identified. C. difficile cultures were ribotyped using a previously
Results
In total, 2057 toxin-positive samples were submitted in the study period. A number of samples were excluded as C. difficile was not isolated (N = 192), no sample date was recorded (N = 2) or no valid NHS number could be obtained (N = 254). Also, where there was a later sample recorded for the same person, the earlier sample was excluded (N = 183). Therefore 1426 patients were included in this study.
Demographic and ribotyping details of study participants are shown in Table I. The majority of
Discussion
This is the first study of comparative mortality between multiple ribotypes, using a large population-based cohort to quantify mortality following CDI. This study provides the first ribotype-specific data on mortality for ribotypes that are common in England and Wales. These data improve our understanding of mortality caused by CDI, and will inform estimates of the burden of CDI infection.
There was variability in mortality among ribotypes; mortality was significantly higher for ribotype 027 at
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the diagnostic microbiology laboratories in North East England for contributing samples for typing, J. Evans and B. Dowling for performing much of the ribotyping, A. Wilson for administrative assistance and S. Conti for statistical advice. The authors acknowledge the ONS as the provider of death registration data and declare that those who carried out the original collection and analysis of the data bear no responsibility for their further analysis or interpretation.
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Cited by (23)
Japanese Clinical Practice Guidelines for Management of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection
2022, Journal of Infection and ChemotherapyCitation Excerpt :Ribotype 027 was found to be a risk factor for death in a single-center retrospective study conducted in Canada by Labbé et al. (OR, 2.06; 95% CI, 1.00–4.22) [185] and in a retrospective study including 1,144 patients by Rao et al. (OR, 2.02; 95% CI, 1.19–3.43; P = 0.009) [203], as well as a risk factor for hospital mortality in a study of 292 patients by Bauer et al. (OR, 1.02; 95% CI, 0.53–1.96) [204]. A retrospective cohort study with 1,426 patients by Inns et al. showed the best prognosis for ribotype 015 with an RR of 0.46 (95% CI, 0.26–0.83), compared with an RR of 1.34 (95% CI, 1.02–1.7) for ribotype 027 [189]. A prospective case-control study including 139 patients by Wong et al. showed ribotype 002 as a risk factor (HR, 28; 95% CI, 1.1–7.0) [205].
Molecular epidemiology of predominant and emerging Clostridioides difficile ribotypes
2020, Journal of Microbiological MethodsReprint of: Overview and changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection
2018, Seminars in Colon and Rectal SurgeryTrends in mortality following Clostridium difficile infection in Scotland, 2010–2016: a retrospective cohort and case–control study
2018, Journal of Hospital InfectionCitation Excerpt :The prevalence of 027 in Scotland has changed greatly since 2008, from being one of the three most common PCR ribotypes found in Scotland to almost disappearing completely. The proportion of 027 in our study was 2.5% compared to 10.3% and 8.0% in the more recent English and Dutch studies, and, along with PCR ribotype 001, these were the only types in our study that had an OR >1, albeit not statistically significant [11,14]. We cannot discount the possibility that the lack of any association between 001 or 027 and higher mortality in our study might be due to the small numbers.
Genomic and phenotypic diversity of Clostridium difficile during long-term sequential recurrences of infection
2018, International Journal of Medical Microbiology