Interactions between working memory, attention and eye movements
Introduction
In every-day life we often make use of our ability to temporarily store information until our task is completed. Working memory – which refers to the process of actively maintaining relevant information in mind for brief periods of time – is thought to underlie this ability. One of the most influential conceptualizations of working memory is the multiple component model of Baddeley and colleagues (e.g., Baddeley, 1986, Baddeley and Hitch, 1974). In the original model, Baddeley and colleagues suggested two independent buffers for the storage of verbal and visuospatial information. In a later version of the model, an additional buffer was added called “episodic buffer” which was assumed to link information across domains to form integrated units of visual, spatial, and verbal information (Baddeley, 2000). The Central Executive makes it possible to manage information in and between the different buffers. The present paper focuses on the visuospatial aspect of working memory. It refers to the process that allows retention and manipulation of information that is no longer available in the environment.
While it is possible to direct attention to information that is held in working memory, it is also possible to direct attention to relevant information that is still present in the environment. A long line of research has demonstrated that the allocation of visual attention to locations in visual space results in enhancement of processing of information that is presented at the attended location on both behavioral and neural levels (Mangun et al., 2001, Munneke et al., 2008, Peelen et al., 2004, Posner, 1980).
Recent work by Awh and colleagues (Awh and Jonides, 2001, Awh et al., 1998) indicates that, at least for visuospatial memory, there is a close link between working memory and visual attention. They showed that when a location is kept in working memory, processing of stimuli at the memorized location is facilitated relative to other locations (Awh & Jonides, 2001), just like attending to a location improves the processing of information at that location (Posner, 1980). Conversely, when attention to memorized locations is interrupted, the ability to remember these locations is impaired (Awh et al., 1998). Brain imaging studies of working memory confirm the notion that rehearsal of spatial information modulates early sensory areas (Awh et al., 1999), and that the same fronto-parietal network is involved as in attention-related tasks (Kastner & Ungerleider, 2000).
In the present paper, we review the recent findings on working memory and attention. We mainly focus on the research from our own laboratory. We discuss the relationship between the allocation of visual attention and working memory. We show that many phenomena related to visual attention taking place when selecting relevant information from the environment also occur when those stimuli are kept active in working memory. We show that maintaining a location in working memory not only may involve attention rehearsal, but also may recruit the oculomotor system. We discuss some recent findings suggesting that remembering a location may involve attention-based rehearsal in higher brain areas, while at the same time there is inhibition of specific motor programs at lower brain areas. We discuss the possibility that working memory functions do not reside at a special area in the brain, but emerge from the selective recruitment of brain areas that are typically involved in spatial attention and motor control, a view consistent with the notion of Grounded Cognition (e.g., Barsalou, 2008).
Section snippets
Working memory and attention
As a metaphor visual attention has been compared to a spotlight that “selects” parts of the visual world around us (e.g., Posner, 1980). Visual attention allows people to select information that is relevant for their ongoing behavior. Providing information about the location of an upcoming target usually involves a cueing procedure in which a cue indicates with a high probability (e.g., in 80% trials the information provided to the participant is valid) the location of the upcoming target. Such
Working memory and eye movements
As described above, there appears to be a strong link between visual working memory and attention. In turn, an equally strong link exists between spatial attention and eye movements. Previous research has shown that the eyes typically move to the location where attention is allocated, and, vice versa, attention is allocated at possible saccade targets (Deubel and Schneider, 1996, Hoffman and Subramaniam, 1995, Kowler et al., 1995).
In a study conducted in our laboratory, we showed that just
Discussion
In this paper, we discussed evidence suggesting a strong overlap between visual working memory, spatial attention and the oculomotor system. The premotor theory of attention (Rizzolatti et al., 1987, Sheliga et al., 1994) provides a framework to explain the strong overlap. According to this theory, the activation of neural structures related to attention depends on the required motor action. Thus, spatial attention shifts are considered to be a byproduct of preparing a saccadic eye movement, or
Acknowledgement
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jan Theeuwes, Dept. of Cognitive Psychology, Vrije Universiteit, van der Boechorststraat 1, 1081 BT Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Electronic mail may be sent to [email protected]. This research was funded by a grant from NWO (Netherlands organization for Scientific Research), grant to JT and NWO-Vidi grant 452-06-007 to C.N.L.O.
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