A longitudinal study of the etiology of separation anxiety
Introduction
Fear of separation is common to many species (Kraemer, 1985, Kraemer, 1992, McKinney, 1985, Mineka, 1982). Human infants may cry at their guardians departure from 8 to 24 months, with likelihood peaking around 13 months (Kagan et al., 1978, Smith, 1979) and decreasing from 30 months onward (Cox & Campbell, 1968, Gershaw & Schwartz, 1971). The anxiety is greater if the child is in an unfamiliar setting. This occurs despite differences in child-rearing practices across a variety of settings, including the United States, Guatemala and Israel (Kagan et al., 1978). Separation anxiety is seen in children with Down's syndrome, in the blind (who recognise the absence of their caretaker by sound) and is the same if the caretaker is male or female, or if the child was reared at home or in day care (Marks, 1987). It is easy to speculate on the adaptive value of this response (Marks & Nesse, 1994), and Bowlby (1973) and Marks (1987) have argued persuasively that separation from a caretaker increases the likelihood of negative outcomes for many species.
Retrospective reports suggest that separation anxiety is unrelated to the amount of previous time spent with the caretaker, and more importantly, appears to be unrelated to past aversive experiences during separation (Bowlby, 1973, Clarke & Jackson, 1983, Marks, 1987). This is consistent with a non-associative account of fear acquisition (Menzies & Clarke, 1995) that predicts that aversive associative learning is not a prerequisite for evolutionary-relevant fears. Consistent with this hypothesis, recent prospective data have demonstrated that evolutionary-relevant fears such as fear of height and water are largely unrelated to a history of direct aversive conditioning events (Poulton, Davies, Menzies, Langley & Silva, 1998Poulton, Menzies, Craske, Langley and Silva, 1999). However, the primary focus of both of these prospective studies was on the role of direct conditioning events in fear development, and two other major associative pathways for fear acquisition were not systematically assessed. Specifically, the role of vicarious learning/modelling and the transmission of information has yet to be compared against a non-associative account of the development of evolutionary-relevant fear in a prospective study. A comprehensive test of the non-associative model requires that all three of the associative pathways described by Rachman (1977) (i.e. direct conditioning, vicarious learning and transmission of information) be evaluated against the non-associative account.
We were also interested in identifying experiential factors associated with decreases in levels of separation anxiety. It was hypothesised that learning not to fear separation would be associated with planned, safe and non-painful separations (e.g. pre-school attendance), whereas unpredictable, and potentially more aversive experiences (e.g. acute hospitalisations) would be associated with higher levels of separation anxiety (see Rachman, 1978: 254 for a discussion of “Learning not to fear”).
Separation anxiety should be studied beyond the age at which it is normative, that is, after the age of 30 months (Marks, 1987). Presumably high levels beyond this age reflect a more extreme form of separation anxiety, one that may be qualitatively different and of clinical relevance. Accordingly, this study assessed a variety of separation experiences from birth through to age 18 years in a relatively large, unselected birth cohort and related these to measures of separation anxiety at ages 3, 11 and 18 years. Because low socio-economic status (SES) has been suggested to be a risk factor for separation anxiety (Bird, Gould, Yager, Staghezza & Canino, 1989), we also controlled for SES in analyses.
Section snippets
Participants
The sample consisted of members of the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study, a longitudinal investigation of young people's health, development and behaviour from birth to adulthood. The study and sample members have been described in detail elsewhere (Silva & Stanton, 1996). Briefly, the Dunedin sample has been assessed with a diverse array of psychological, medical and sociological measures with high rates of participation at age 3 (n=1037), age 5 (n=991), age 7 (n=954), age
Age 3
A total of 653 (63.2%) study members had never been separated from their mother for more than a week prior to age 3, 265 (25.7%) had experienced one separation of more than a week but less than a month, 51 (4.9%) had experienced two separations of more than a week but less than a month, 21 (2.0%) had experienced three or more separations of more than a week but less than a month, 16 (1.5%) had experienced at least one separation of 3 months or more, and 27 (2.6%) had experienced a change of
Discussion
Putative aversive conditioning experiences occurring during the first three years of life (i.e. separations from mother and overnight hospitalisations) were not related to separation anxiety at 3 years, the age at which normative separation anxiety has begun to dissipate (Cox & Campbell, 1968, Gershaw & Schwartz, 1971). Analyses revealed one interaction between social class and separation experiences and age 3 separation anxiety: the likelihood of separation anxiety at age 3 was reduced by the
Acknowledgements
The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study is supported by the Health Research Council of New Zealand. Data collection was partially supported by US Public Health Service Grant No. MH-45070 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The authors are indebted to Dr Phil Silva, director emeritus of the Study and the Study members for their participation and continued support.
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