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Environmental Lithium Exposure in the North of Chile—I. Natural Water Sources

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Abstract

Lithium as an essential element for human life is still a subject of controversy. However, it is accepted that it does have profound neurological effects and is a valuable treatment for bipolar disease. Generally, it occurs in barely trace amounts in groundwater with few major exceptions. One of these is the Northern area of Chile where all potable water and many of the food stuffs contain high levels of lithium; between 100 and 10,000 times higher than most rivers in North America. Inevitably, the local population has been exposed to these levels in their drinking water for as long as the region has been populated. The present report details lithium levels in all the surface water sources of Northern Chile with comparison to that elsewhere. The implications for the local population are discussed and their situation compared to those exposed to other sources of lithium pollution.

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Notes

  1. Schrauzer [9] and Aral and Vecchio [10] said that the people in this area had no adverse effects from the high lithium levels but admitted there were no studies to base this upon.

  2. We tried to find Zaldivar to learn more about his work but to no avail. He left Chile when Pinochet came to power and effectively disappeared.

  3. The MAHGP’s aim was to determine the strategies involved “human adaptation to a rigorous environment”. The environment under study was the Andean altiplano and the subjects were largely the Aymara who populated that area in altitudes largely above 4,000 m in southwest Bolivia, northwest Argentina, and northwest Chile. The multinational and multidisciplinary study team assembled in 1972 involved scientists from Bolivia (Universidad de San Andres), Chile (Universidad de Chile, Universidad de Norte—now the Universidad of Tarapaca, Junta de Adelanto de Arica, and the Servicio Nacional de Salud), Ecudador and Peru (Universidad de San Marcos), Argentina (University de Juay), and the USA (Mayo Clinic, University of Michigan, and the University of Michigan and the University of Texas Health Science Centre at Houston). Scientific teams from these various institutes visited hundreds of villages and examined more than 2,200 people in the Bolivian, Argentian, and Chilean altiplano. The examinations included detailed interviews and examinations and all findings were coded and entered into detailed questionnaire proformas. The data collected included information that could potentially shed light on the possible genetic and environmental factors responsible for the adaptation to hypoxia at high altitude. The study produced hundreds of papers most of which are described in the book which describes the multinational effort “The Aymara, Strategies in Human Adaptation to a Rigorous Environment” [11]. Mueller et al. [46] described the Chilean “study segment” that began in 1972 as a multidisciplinary study, which sought to assess the health status of the indigenous peoples of the Department of Arica in northern Chile, the Aymara, and to related disease, morphological, physiological, and biochemical variation to the wide changes in altitude of the region.

  4. The north of Chile, extends from the Peruvian border 2,000 miles to the south to Copiapo. It is mostly the Atacama desert known to be the driest area on earth. The coastal shores are characterized largely by pink cliff faces that rise to heights of 500–600 m along the bottom of which are sea eroded terraces on which the few towns and cities in the area have been built. Eastward, the land rises rapidly into the precordilleras (ca 3,000 m) and ultimately to the altiplano (>4,000 m) which extends into Bolivia. Chile’s eastern frontier follows the crests of the Andean Western Cordillera (5,000–6,700 m) occasionally broken by passes leading into Bolivia or Argentina. Salars (salt flats) stud the Altiplano particularly in the south. Few small Salars are found in the study area. These are apparently unconnected to the three river systems which form the primary part of this investigation. Rivers and streams originate in the cordillera and the precordilla to the east and follow valleys or quebrada. Few watered valleys reach the sea. Overall, the majorities of settlements are in the altiplano, the precordilleras, and are associated with the few modest rivers that include for the most part Rios Camerones, Copiapo, Lluta, Loa, and San Jose. Calama is the only community of consequence in the interior; Antofagasta, Arica, Chanaral, Iquique, Taltal, and Tocopilla are all on the coast.

  5. Barton took more than 150 samples; also had discussions at the time (1979) with the Director of the Water Department in Arica, Sr. Ruben Velozo Retamel, Jefe Subrogente, Direction Gral de Aguas (DGA), 1a Regino, Dept. Hidrologia.

  6. This desertic landscape, located on the west coast of South America, extends for more than 3,000 km along a narrow strip from northern Peru (latitude, 58 S) to northern Chile (latitude 278 S). It owes its existence to the drying effect of the cold northward flowing Humboldt Current, the existence of air masses associated with the subtropical high known as the South Pacific Anticyclone, and to the rain shadow effect of the Andean mountain ranges, which impedes the penetration of moisture carried by the eastern trade winds. Although this desert is continuous from Peru to Chile, it is usually broken into two main components. The Peruvian Coastal Desert extends from Tumbes (ca. 58 S) to Tacna in southern Peru (ca. 188 S), and the Atacama Desert from the area of Arica in northern Chile (ca. 188 S) to Copiapó (ca. 278 S). The northern part of the Peruvian Coastal Desert consists of a wide coastal plain with shifting sands known as the Sechura Desert, some 100–150 km wide. During the terminal Pleistocene and Holocene, this coastal desert provided more favorable living conditions in the form of spring water and shallow lagoons with fresh water, as documented in Pamp a de los Fó siles in the Cupisnique Desert, of northern Peru. Further south in the Peruvian Coastal Desert, thick cloud banks form over the desert lands as a result of the cooling effect of the Humboldt. When intercepted by isolated mountains or steep coastal slopes, this cool moist air gives rise to a fog zone known as garúa in Peru and Camanchaca in Chile. This moisture allows for the development of isolated and diverse vegetation formations called lomas (small hills), where plants are adapted to condense this humidity. The lomas, comprising communities of annual and perennial plants (Herbaceae and Gramineae) and cacti, grow vigorously during a short period in the winter of the Southern Hemisphere, and attract a wide variety of animals and birds (camelids, rodents, foxes). These ephemeral “fog oases” were occupied seasonally by hunter-gatherers whose base camps were located on the nearby coast. The Atacama Desert, located between 188S and 278S, can be divided in three sections: north, central, and south. The latter, being the driest, has negligible archeological data and thus is not described herein. Flanked to the east by the high Coastal Cordillera, the littoral offers discrete bays and beaches for human habitation, experiencing a mild climate. In contrast to other Southern Hemisphere deserts (such as in Australia and southern Africa), average yearly precipitation is near zero. Thus, the supply of fresh water depends on rain events outside the desert caused by convective air masses that cross the Andean crest bringing moisture laden air across the altiplano from the Amazon Basin. This phenomenon of the austral summer known as the invierno boliviano (the Bolivian or altiplanic winter) is responsible for the radical fluctuation of superficial runoff and groundwater that typically flows from the western slopes of the Andes to the Pacific. In the northern Atacama, the runoff creates narrow and deep quebradas separated by 20–30 km of barren terrain with no vegetation at all. As rainfall gradually declines toward the south, the quebradas do not reach the ocean, but rather discharge into inland basins, such as the Pampa del Tamarugal and Salar d’Atacama in the central Atacama. The southern Atacama (248–278S) is a territory with no human habitation until recently, known as the despoblado (depopulate) d’Atacama. In sum, although terrestrial biomass production is scanty and sparse, the existing water network, a distinctive feature of the Atacama Desert, offers a predictable resource for hunter–gatherers and fishermen [47].

  7. This included the following: (1) city, village; (2) data and hour sample collected; (3) name of the nearest village, highway; (4) place sample collected as river, channel, or water tap; (5) name of the water source from which the sample was collected; (6) name of the water sources for the village; (7) the length of time the village had been using the sources of water; (8) if water was drawn from wells, how was the water drawn; (9) if the water was piped, from what material were the pipes made; (10) if the water was treated, what was the treatment process; (11) the date and amount of the last rainfall; (12) if the snow had begun to melt and if so, when; (13) the street address, sample site and number(s).

  8. For communities of less than 1,000 people, one sample was drawn from each of three sites: the treatment facility (if one existed, otherwise from the raw source), the school, and a public water tap. For communities of more than 1,000 people, one sample was obtained at the water treatment facility (or raw source if no treatment plant existed) and each of the secondary pumping stations. In addition, a sample was taken from one house, hotel, or public tap, identifying the pumping station location. A sample was also taken from any school in which urine samples were collected and all bottling plants were visited and a sample of the water was collected after the plant’s treatment of the city water but before the water was mixed with syrup. When taking the actual sample, the tube was first rinsed with the water to be collected and the water was then collected from rushing water of the stream or river, never from nonrunning water or from water after the water tap had been opened for at least 1 min. Sample tube numbers were recorded onto the Water Sample Data Sheet and the exact location of the sample site was noted.

    Some of the questions overlapped with those listed above for the Water Sample Data Sheet but those unique to the second questionnaire included: (1) name of person interviewed; (2) address; (3) exact location of the pumping station for the drinking water supply; (4) the material used to construct the drinking water storage tanks; (5) the material used to make the pipes that carried the drinking water into the homes; (6) the exact location of the treatment facilities or the location of the raw water source if there was none; (7) the manner in which the water was treated before it was pumped into the distribution pipes; (8) the name of the treatment process; (9) if the same water source(s) had been used for the past 25 years for the city drinking water and an explanation of what those were (10) where the city obtained its drinking water, (11) if the entire city obtained its water from this primary source or were there other drinking water sources for various parts of the city; (12) if the same sources were used during all seasons of the year or if for example during the dry season, additional sources were used; (13) how long the city used these sources of drinking water; (14) where the water was obtained for agricultural/irrigation purposes and animal drinking water supplies; (15) how far into the surrounding area those drinking and animal and agricultural water sources were used.

  9. While this may not influence the river pattern lithium concentrations described in this report that is not entirely certain since, according to Salas (April 2009, personal communication) drainage is through Bolivia in the Rio Lauca.

  10. At Tarapaca village, the people told Dr Barton they could not drink the water from the "river" as it was so bad.

  11. Thermal activity is one source of sample variation—note higher readings noted from Tatio geyser and Puritama at the headwaters of the Rio Loa, Chusmisa—stream between school and plant = 29 ppb; open thermal spring = 278 ppb; clear thermal activity in the lagunas Verde, Roja, Amarillo; Peru Caliente run stream, 140 v 251 ppb thermal spring.

  12. “Originally the Rio Lauca, and its major tributaries, the Rio Quiburana and Rio Sajama, drained into the Lago de Coipasa in Bolivia; however, several decades ago, with the consent of Bolivia, to meet the increased water needs of the Azapa Valley agricultural enterprises and the growing electrical requirements of Arica, some of the waters of the Lauca were diverted into the Rio San Jose that sustains the Azapa Valley…The San Jose River, for example, until the diversion of a portion of the Lauca, had very few feeder streams originating in the altiplano and was not connected to any thermal area. Thus, the quality of its water was far better than most of the other rivers, but the quantity it carried was very much less, and rarely, save in years of exceptionally heavy rain in the sierra, did its waters actually reach the Pacific” [12]. Also, Klohn [31] cf: Fig. 5 “Hydrological Pattern, Dept of Arica”.

  13. Also, with an apparent mix of surface and subterranean waters for the city of Arica, Barton said in 1979, “the water came from three wells at the Pago de Gomez water plant and from subterranean rivers which run close to the surface of the ground at the Planta Azapa plant. At both places, the water is placed into large, closed metal tanks then pumped…”.

  14. The Chintaguay springs supplies water for Pica, Matilla, Pozo Almonte, Tirana, and Huayca with a pumping station in Pica at which chlorine is added; 7 kg of chlorine every 24 h, pumping 33 L/s of water. Pica area has an interesting water history, it is said that the water in the Chintaguay springs is from underground rivers which form a pool. As these are thermal springs, this causes a salt deposit build-up problem for some vegetation, especially the citrus groves which are numerous around Pica. Every 7 or 8 years, a trench has to be dug around the roots and the salt flushed off. Before 1845, Iquique’s water supply was a spring near the ocean, but an earthquake caused it to dry up, afterwards they were getting water by boat from Arica; then in 1860, the railroad tracks were laid by an English engineering firm to haul water by stream trains from Pica. This was also the era of heavy nitrate mining for which there are obvious remains on the road between Canchones Pumping station and Oficina Sara. Since 1969, Iquique gets its water from the Canchones wells, which are four wells, 45 m deep, and pumped into five large/huge metal tanks supported at least one story in the air and piped by large conduct on top of ground to Iquique. Likewise, Pozo Almonte used to use the well water from Planta D.O.S. at Oficina Sara until 5 years ago. Also, water is piped by large conduct on top of ground from wells at Sagasca to Huara and a newly built military compound at Baquedano. Matilla uses the Chintaquay spring water 6 days a week (64.8 ppb) and 1 day a week a local spring source (72.0 ppb).

  15. For example, for Diez y Seis school, Barton said they “probably mixed some, channel water with the Arica truck water to make it go further. They do not use the channel (rio) water because of the water being so ‘bad’.”

  16. I found the Camarones River to be running in two streams and I took samples from each. Again "river" is misleading as I crossed the first stream on rocks only getting one boot wet about 2 in. up. Again, I believe there is the possibility of water mixing at the Cuya Carabinero station as I took a sample from the tap in the restroom (546.9 ppb) and was told this water was trucked from Arica; again, Arica’s highest value is 115.1 ppb. The water is stored in a closed metal tank.

  17. Its tributaries, the Azufre and Tacora Rivers, arise in a sulfur rich area, and are also acidic (pH hovers around 2–3), as are the waters it derives from thermal springs, some of which are exceptionally rich in borax (Wright et al. 1961 and Wright and Melendez 1963, op cit [12]). Both the Azufre and Tacora Rivers are highly toxic to livestock and travelers. Near Humalpaca, these rivers are joined by the Caracarani, and further addition of the waters of the Putre and Socoroma Rivers, which are alkaline and apparently serve well the terrace gardens of the farmers in the vicinity of Putre, does not significantly alter the acidity of the main river but does apparently lessen its toxicity.

  18. And this concatenation may be responsible for the periodic crop failures that occur. However, archeological remains are common in the Lluta valley, suggesting that the indigenous pre-Columbian population was able to utilize the water.

  19. Putre, n = 11 from 1993 [16] and n = 5 from 1968 [13]; Molinos, n = 9 from 1993; Poconchile, n = 4 from 1993 [16].

  20. "Channel" refers to any system man has made (cement sides, open top) or dug in the earth to direct water and "stream" for water running in natural courses; what if were running in a sufficient quantity should be called a river; but the water supply is so terribly low at this time. Obviously, the holding tanks, as I refer to them, are only used to gather a sufficient quantity of water and ensure pressure to force water through pipes into the village proper. They were of two types which I labeled "adobe" if made of rocks and a poor quality cement, which was rough in texture and intermixed with various items. As opposed to tanks made of smooth cement, with seams, much in the style used in the states. Many of the villages had two holding tanks, one usually cleaner and covered which was used for water for the people of the village and a second usually open which was used for irrigation and stock water. Springs tended to be open and running into a stream or channel or with a cement wall enclosure, without a cover and the water bubbling up from the ground into the enclosure.

  21. Consumers routinely dispose of batteries along with other garbage in the municipal solid waste [34]. The uncontrolled discarding of such batteries has been called a ‘huge environmental threat’ by some (Antler of Call2Recycle, cited by Belford [35]). There are no data available on environmental lithium release from spent batteries (noted by Kummer speaking at the International Battery Conference, 2009 [36]). Indeed, the EC Battery Directive adopted in 2004 (2006/66) set as one of its main objectives a high level of environmental protection, performance and a general ban on landfilling in concert with Article 12 Battery Directive that mandated meeting recycling target efficiencies by 26 Sept 2010. However, according to Mulliken [37], there was only one company in the USA as of 2009 (Toxco Inc) that actually recycled lithium ion batteries. Unfortunately, the major Toxco facility exploded in 2009, making it the fifth fire recorded from that facility and no apparent environmental assessment consequential upon the accidents appears to have been filed [38]; also see Taylor [39]. Safety issues continue to be a top priority at the UN level for both chemical (spillable) and electrical (nonspillable) hazards (Wiaux 2009, personal communication). Lithium may be released environmentally in nondedicated facilities such as by those trying to recover cobalt since they would not be tracking lithium.

  22. Since 1942, Foote had manufactured lithium halides in solution at their Frazer Pennsylvania facility. During a routine inspection in 1969, the Pennsylania DER found lithium groundwater concentrations exceeded 5,000 ppb in relation to wastewater discharge from the plant. In 1987, lithium surface water readings reached 8,000 ppb in some parts of the plant quarry with evidence of offsite lithium contamination in surface waters in nearby streams as high as 780 ppb [43]. Despite much concern by the US EPA and other agencies, human biological consequences due environmental lithium releases due to military or commercial facilities have never been proven.

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Electronic Supplementary Material

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ESM 1

DOC 23 kb

Fig. 1

Azapa, Lluta, and Camerones Valleys (JPEG 195 kb)

Fig. 2

Lauca Precordillera (PDF 31 kb)

Fig. 3

Regions XV to Region II (JPEG 257 kb)

Fig. 4

San Pedro and small villages, lakes, and small salars near the Salar d’Atacama (JPEG 59 kb)

Fig. 5

Lluta and Camerones samples over time; a Putre, b Molinos, c Poconchile, d Lluta entry to ocean, e Conanoxa, f Cuya Bridge, g Camerones entry to ocean (DOC 38 kb)

Table 1

Azapa Valley and Rio San Jose (DOC 27 kb)

Table 2

VALLE LLUTA 30 Dec 11 (DOC 30 kb)

Table 3

Valle Camerones (DOC 51 kb)

Table 4

Lauca Precordillera along Rio Tignamar (Region XV; DOC 26 kb)

Table 5

Region I (DOC 33 kb)

Table 6

Region II and beyond (DOC 85 kb)

Table 7

Salares, lakes, and villages around Salar d’Atacama (DOC 69 kb)

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Figueroa, L., Barton, S., Schull, W. et al. Environmental Lithium Exposure in the North of Chile—I. Natural Water Sources. Biol Trace Elem Res 149, 280–290 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9417-6

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