Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Melanoma Epidemiology and Prevention

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Melanoma

Part of the book series: Cancer Treatment and Research ((CTAR,volume 167))

Abstract

The epidemiology of melanoma is complex, and individual risk depends on sun exposure, host factors, and genetic factors, and in their interactions as well. Sun exposure can be classified as intermittent, chronic, or cumulative (overall) exposure, and each appears to have a different effect on type of melanoma. Other environmental factors, such as chemical exposures—either through occupation, atmosphere, or food—may increase risk for melanoma, and this area warrants further study. Host factors that are well known to be important are the numbers and types of nevi and the skin phenotype. Genetic factors are classified as high-penetrant genes, moderate-risk genes, or low-risk genetic polymorphisms. Subtypes of tumors, such as BRAF-mutated tumors, have different risk factors as well as different therapies. Prevention of melanoma has been attempted using various strategies in specific subpopulations, but to date optimal interventions to reduce incidence have not emerged.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 199.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Akhtar FZ, Garabrant DH, Ketchum NS et al (2004) Cancer in U.S. Air Force veterans of the Vietnam war. J Occup Environ Med 46:123–136

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Amos CI, Wang LE, Lee JE et al (2011) Genome-wide association study identifies novel loci predisposing to cutaneous melanoma. Hum Mol Genet 20:5012–5023

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Andersen A, Barlow L, Engeland A et al (1999) Work-related cancer in Nordic countries. Scand J Work Environ Health 15:1–116

    Google Scholar 

  4. Andersen PA, Buller DB, Walkosz BJ et al (2012) Expanding occupational sun safety to an outdoor recreation industry: a translational study of the go sun smart program. Trans Behav Med 2(1):10–18

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Armstrong BK, Kricker A (1993) How much melanoma is caused by sun exposure? Melanoma Res 3:395–401

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Armstrong BK, Kricker A (2001) The epidemiology of UV induced skin cancer. J Photochem Photobiol B 63:8–18

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Armstrong BK (2006) Ch. 6. Epidemiology of melanoma and current trends. In: Dunitz M (ed) Textbook of melanoma, London

    Google Scholar 

  8. Austin DF, Reynolds P (1986) Occupation and malignant melanoma of the skin. Recent Results Cancer Res 102:98–107

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Autier P, Boniol M, Dore JF (2007) Sunscreen use and increased duration of intentional sun exposure: still a burning issue. Int J Cancer 121(1):1–5

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Autier P, Dore JF, Negrier S et al (1999) Sunscreen use and duration of sun exposure: a double-blind, randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 91(15):1304–1309

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Autier P, Dore JF, Reis AC et al (2000) Sunscreen use and intentional exposure to ultraviolet A and B radiation: a double blind randomized trial using personal dosimeters. Br J Cancer 83(9):1243–1248

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Autier P, Mezzetti M, Dore JF et al (1998) Sunscreen use, wearing clothes, and number of nevi in 6 to 7-year-old European children. J Natl Cancer Inst 90(24):1870–1872

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Barrett JH, Iles MM, Harland M et al (2011) Genome-wide association study identifies three new melanoma susceptibility loci. Nat Genet 43:1108–1113

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Bastian BC (2014) The molecular pathology of melanoma: an integrated taxonomy of melanocytic neoplasia. Annu Rev Pathol 9:239–271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Bataille V, de Vries E (2008) Melanoma—part 1: epidemiology, risk factors, and prevention. BMJ 337:1287–1291

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Bataille V, Snieder H, MacGregor A et al (2000) Genetics of risk factors for melanoma: an adult twin study of nevi and freckles. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:457–463

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Bauer J, Buttner P, Murali R et al (2011) BRAF mutations in cutaneous melanoma are independently associated with age, anatomic site of the primary tumor, and the degree of solar elastosis at the primary tumor site. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 24:345–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bauer J, Buttner P, Wiecker TS et al (2005) Effect of sunscreen and clothing on the number of melanocytic nevi in 1812 German children attending day care. Am J Epidemiol 161(7):620–627

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Bauer J, Buttner P, Wiecker TS et al (2005) Interventional study in 1232 young German children to prevent the development of melanocytic nevi failed to change sun exposure and sun protective behavior. Int J Cancer 116(5):755–761

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Begg CB, Orlow I, Hummer AJ et al (2005) Lifetime risk of melanoma in CDKN2A mutation carriers in a population-based sample. J Natl Cancer Inst 97:1507–1515

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Bertolotto C, Lesueur F, Giuliano S et al (2011) A SUMOylation-defective MITF germline mutation predisposes to melanoma and renal carcinoma. Nature 480:94–98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Berwick M (2008) Are tanning beds “safe”? Human studies of melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 21:517–519

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Berwick M, Armstrong BK, Ben-Porat L et al (2005) Sun exposure and mortality from melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 97:195–199

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Berwick M (2011) Melanoma Epidemiology. In: Bosserhoff A (ed) melanoma development. Springer, Vienna

    Google Scholar 

  25. Berwick M, Macarthur J, Orlow I et al (2014) MITF E318K’s effect on melanoma risk independent of, but modified by, other risk factors. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res. doi:10.1111/pcmr.12215

    Google Scholar 

  26. Berwick M, Orlow I, Hummer AJ et al (2006) The prevalence of CDKN2A germ-line mutations and relative risk for cutaneous malignant melanoma: an international population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15:1520–1525

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Goldstein AM et al (2002) Geographical variation in the penetrance of CDKN2A mutations for melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 94:894–903

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Bishop DT, Demenais F, Iles MM et al (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies three loci associated with melanoma risk. Nat Genet 41:920–925

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Blettner M, Zeeb H, Auvinen A et al (2003) Mortality from cancer and other causes among male airline cockpit crew in Europe. Int J Cancer 106:946–952

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Bliss J, Ford D, Swerdow A et al (1995) Risk of cutaneous melanoma-associated with pigmentation characteristics and freckling—systematic overview of 10 case-control studies. Int J Cancer 61:367–376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Boniol M, Armstrong BK, Doré JF (2006) Variation in incidence and fatality of melanoma by season of diagnosis in new South Wales, Australia. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15:524–526

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Boniol M, Autier P, Boyle P et al (2012) Cutaneous melanoma attributable to sunbed use: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 345:e4757

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Boniol M, Autier P, Boyle P et al (2012) Correction. Cutaneous melanoma attributable to sunbed use: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 345:e8503

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Boscoe FP, Schymura MJ (2006) Solar ultraviolet-B exposure and cancer incidence and mortality in the United States, 1993–2002. BMC Cancer 6:624

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Botton T, Yeh I, Nelson T et al (2013) Recurrent BRAF kinase fusions in melanocytic tumors offer an opportunity for targeted therapy. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 26:845–851

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Brandberg Y, Sjoden PO, Rosdahl I (1997) Assessment of sun-related behaviour in individuals with dysplastic naevus syndrome: a comparison between diary recordings and questionnaire responses. Melanoma Res 7(4):347–351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Bressac-de-Paillerets B, Avril M-F, Chompret A et al (2002) Genetic and environmental factors in cutaneous malignant melanoma. Biochimie 84:67–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Brown C, Lacharme-Lora L, Mukonoweshuro B et al (2013) Consequences of exposure to peri-articular injections of micro- and nano-particulate cobalt-chromium alloy. Biomaterials 34(34):8564–8580

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Brown KM, Macgregor S, Montgomery GW et al (2008) Common sequence variants on 20q11.22 confer melanoma susceptibility. Nat Genet 40:838–840

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Buendia Eisman A, Arias Santiago S, Moreno-Gimenez JC et al (2013) An internet-based programme to promote adequate UV exposure behaviour in adolescents in Spain. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 27(4):442–453

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Bulbulyan MA, Ilychova SA, Zahm SH et al (1999) Cancer mortality among women in the Russian printing industry. Am J Ind Med 36:166–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Buller DB, Andersen PA, Walkosz BJ et al (2005) Randomized trial testing a worksite sun protection program in an outdoor recreation industry. Health Educ Behav 32(4):514–535

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Buller DB, Buller MK, Beach B et al (1996) Sunny days, healthy ways: evaluation of a skin cancer prevention curriculum for elementary school-aged children. J Am Acad Dermatol 35(6):911–922

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Buller DB, Reynolds KD, Yaroch A et al (2006) Effects of the sunny days, healthy ways curriculum on students in grades 6 to 8. Am J Prev Med 30(1):13–22

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Buller DB, Taylor AM, Buller MK et al (2006) Evaluation of the sunny days, healthy ways sun safety curriculum for children in kindergarten through fifth grade. Pediatr Dermatol 23(4):321–329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Bulliard JL (2000) Site-specific risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma and pattern of sun exposure in New Zealand. Int J Cancer 85:627–632

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Caini S, Gandini S, Sera F et al (2009) Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma according to anatomical site and clino-pathological variant. Eur J Cancer 45:3054–3063

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Carli P, Crocetti E, Chiarugi A et al (2008) The use of commercially available personal UV meters does cause less safe tanning habits: a randomized controlled trial. Photochem Photobiol 84(3):758–763

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Carli P, Palli D (2003) RE: Melanocytic nevi, solar keratosis, and divergent pathways to cutaneous melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:1801

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Carpenter DO (2006) Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): routes of exposure and effects on human health. Rev Environ Health 21:1–23

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Cercato MC, Nagore E, Ramazzotti V et al (2013) Improving sun-safe knowledge, attitude and behaviour in parents of primary school children: a pilot study. J Cancer Educ 28(1):151–157

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Couzin-Frankel J (2013) Cancer Immunother. Science 342:1432–1433

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Curtin JA, Busam K, Pinkel D et al (2006) Somatic activation of KIT in distinct subtypes of melanoma. J Clin Oncol 24:4340–4346

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Curtin JA, Fridly J, Kageshita T et al (2005) Distinct sets of genetic alternatives in melanoma. N Engl J Med 353(20):2135–2147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Curtin JA, Fridly J, Kageshita T et al (2005) Distinct sets of genetic alterations in melanoma. N Engl J Med 353:2135–2147

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Cust AE, Goumas C, Holland EA et al (2012) MC1R genotypes and risk of melanoma before age 40 years: a population-based case-control-family study. Int J Cancer 131:E269–E281

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Cust AE, Goumas C, Vuong K et al (2013) MC1R genotype as a predictor of early-onset melanoma, compared with self-reported and physician-measured traditional risk factors: an Australian case-control-family study. BMC Cancer 13:406

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Cust AE, Harland M, Makalic E et al (2011) Melanoma risk for CDKN2A mutation carriers who are relatives of population-based case carriers in Australia and the UK. J Med Genet 48:266–272

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Dennis LK, Vanbeek MJ, Beane Freeman LE et al (2008) Sunburns and risk of cutaneous melanoma: does age matter? A comprehensive meta-analysis. Ann Epidemiol 18:614–627

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Devitt B, Liu W, Salemi R et al (2011) Clinical outcome and pathological features associated with NRAS mutation in cutaneous melanoma. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 24:666–672

    Google Scholar 

  61. Diffey BL, Healy E, Thody AJ et al (1995) Melanin, melanocytes, and melanoma. Lancet 346:1713

    Google Scholar 

  62. Dobbinson SJ, Wakefield MA, Jamsen KM et al (2008) Weekend sun protection and sunburn in Australia trends (1987–2002) and association with SunSmart television advertising. Am J Prev Med 34(2):94–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Edlundh-Rose E, Egyhazi S, Omholt K et al (2006) NRAS and BRAF mutations in melanoma tumours in relation to clinical characteristics: a study based on mutation screening by pyrosequencing. Melanoma Res 16:471–478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ellerhorst JA, Greene VR, Ekmekcioglu S et al (2011) Clinical correlates of NRAS and BRAF mutations in primary human melanoma. Clin Cancer Res 17:229–235

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Elwood JM, Jopson J (1997) Melanoma and sun exposure: an overview of published studies. Int J Cancer 73:198–203

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Elwood JM, Lee JA, Walter SD et al (1974) Relationship of melanoma and other skin cancer mortality to latitude and ultraviolet radiation in the United States and Canada. Int J Epidemiol 3:325–332

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Facta S, Fusette SS, Bonino A et al (2012) UV Emissions from artificial tanning devices and their compliance with the European technical standard. Health Phys 104:385–393

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Fargnoli MC, Pike K, Pfeiffer RM et al (2008) MC1R variants increase risk of melanomas harboring BRAF mutations. J Invest Dermatol 128:2485–2490

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Fornnum F, Mariussen E, Reistad T (2006) Molecular mechanisms involved in the toxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs). J Toxicol Environ Health A 69:21–35

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Fortes C, de Vries E (2008) Nonsolar occupational risk factors for cutaneous melanoma. Int J Dermatol 47(4):319–328. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2008.03653.x

  71. Freedman DM, Sigurdson A, Rao RS et al (2003) Risk of melanoma among radiology technologists in the United States. Int J Cancer 103:556–562

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Gallagher RP, Lee TK, Bajdik CD et al (2010) Ultraviolet radiation. Chronic Dis Can 29:S51–S68

    Google Scholar 

  73. Gallagher RP, MacArthur A, Lee TK et al (2011) Plasma levels of polychlorinated biphenyls and risk of cutaneous malignant melanoma: a preliminary study. Int J Cancer 128:1872–1880

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Gallagher RP, Rivers JK, Lee TK et al (2000) Broad-spectrum sunscreen use and the development of new nevi in white children: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 283(22):2955–2960

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al (2005) Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: I. Common and atypical naevi. Eur J Cancer 41:28–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Gandini S, Sera F, Cattaruzza MS et al (2005) Meta-analysis of risk factors for cutaneous melanoma: II. Sun exposure. Eur J Cancer 41:45–60

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Garbe C, Buttner P, Weiss J et al (1994) Associated factors in the prevalence of more than 50 common melanocytic nevi, atypical melanocytic nevi and actinic lentigines: multicenter case-control study of the Central Malignant Melanoma Registry of the German Dermatological Society. J Invest Dermatol 102:700–705

    Google Scholar 

  78. Garland CF, Garland FC, Gorham ED (2003) Epidemiologic evidence for different roles of ultraviolet A and B radiation in melanoma mortality rates. Ann Epidemiol 13:395–404

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Geller AC, Glanz K, Shigaki D et al (2001) Impact of skin cancer prevention on outdoor aquatics staff: the pool cool program in Hawaii and Massachusetts. Prev Med 33:155–161

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Gellert RJ, Heinrichs WL, Swerdloff RS (1972) DDT homologues: estrogen-like effects on the vagina, uterus and pituitary of the rat. Endocrinologoy 91:1095–1100

    Google Scholar 

  81. Gessi M, Hammes J, Lauriola L et al (2013) GNA11 and N-RAS mutations: alternatives for MAPK pathway activating GNAQ mutations in primary melanocytic tumours of the central nervous system. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 39:417–425

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. El Ghissassi F, Baan R, Straif K et al (2009) A review of human carcinogens—part D: radiation. Lancet Oncol 10:751–752

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gidanian S, Mentelle M, Meyskesn FL et al (2008) Melanosomal damage in normal human melanocytes induced by UVB and metal uptake—a basis for the pro-oxidant state of melanoma. Photochem Photobiol 84(3):556–564

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Gies P, Javorniczky J, Henderson S et al (2011) UVR emissions from solaria in Australia and implications for the regulation process. Photochem Photobiol 87(1):184–190. doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.2010.00835.x

  85. Giles-Corti B, English DR, Costa C et al (2004) Creating SunSmart schools. Health Educ Res 19(1):98–109

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Goel VK, Lazar AJ, Warneke CL et al (2006) Examination of mutations in BRAF, NRAS, and PTEN in primary cutaneous melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 126:154–160

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Goldstein AM, Chan M, Harland M et al (2007) Features associated with germline CDKN2A mutations: a GenoMEL study of melanoma-prone families from three continents. J Med Genet 44:99–106

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Green AC, Williams GM, Logan V et al (2011) Reduced melanoma after regular sunscreen use: randomized trial follow-up. J Clin Oncol 29:257–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Gritz ER, Tripp MK, Peterson SK et al (2013) Randomized controlled trial of a sun protection intervention for children of melanoma survivors. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 22(10):1813–1824

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Gruber SB, Armstrong BK (2006) Cutaneous and ocular melanoma. In: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF Jr (eds) Cancer epidemiology and prevention, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  91. Gundestrup M, Storm HH (1999) Radiation induced acute myeloid leukemia in commercial jet cockpit crew: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 354:2029–2031

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Hacker E, Nagore E, Cerroni L et al (2013) NRAS and BRAF mutations in cutaneous melanoma and the association with MC1R genotype: findings from Spanish and Austrian populations. J Invest Dermatol 133(4):1027–1033

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Hacker E, Hayward NK, Dumenil T et al (2009) The association between MC1R genotype and BRAF mutation status in cutaneous melanoma: findings from an Australian population. J Invest Dermatol 130:241–248

    Google Scholar 

  94. Haldorsen T, Reitan JB, Tventen U (2001) Cancer incidence among Norwegian cabin attendants. Int J Epidemiol 30:825–830

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Hall DM, McCarty F, Elliott T et al (2009) Lifeguards’ sun protection habits and sunburns: association with sun-safe environments and skin cancer prevention program participation. Arch Dermatol 145(2):139–144

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Han J, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ (2006) Risk factors for skin cancers: a nested case-control study within the nurses’ health Study. Int J Epidemiol 35:1514–1521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Harrison S, McLennan R, Spear R et al (1994) Sun exposure and melanocytic naevi in young Australian children. Lancet 344:1529–1532

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Harvard Report on Cancer Prevention (1996) Causes of human cancer. Ultraviolet light Cancer Causes Control 7:S39–S40

    Article  Google Scholar 

  99. Hayward NK (2003) Genetics of melanoma predisposition. Oncogene 22:3053–3062

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Heenan PJ, English DR, Holman CD et al (1991) Survival among patients with clinical stage I cutaneous malignant melanoma diagnosed in Western Australia in 1975/76 and 1980/81. Cancer 68:2079–2087

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Heidenreich B, Nagore E, Rachakonda PS et al (2014) Telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter mutations in primary cutaneous melanoma. Nat Commun 5:3401

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Hocker T, Tsao H (2007) Ultraviolet radiation and melanoma: a systematic review and analysis of reported sequence variants. Hum Mutat 28:578–588

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Hodis E, Watson IR, Kryukov GV et al (2012) A landscape of driver mutations in melanoma. Cell 150:251–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Hollenbeak CS, Todd MM, Billingsley EM et al (2005) Increased incidence of melanoma in renal transplantation recipients. Cancer 104:1962–1967

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Horn S, Figl A, Rachakonda PS et al (2013) TERT promoter mutations in familial and sporadic melanoma. Science 339:959–961

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Hornung RL, Magee KH, Lee WJ et al (2003) Tanning facility use: are we exceeding food and drug administration limits? J Am Acad Dermatol 49:655–661

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Huang FW, Hodis E, Xu MJ et al (2013) Highly recurrent TERT promoter mutations in human melanoma. Science 339:957–959

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Huang C, Yan S, Ren J et al (2013) A quantitative assessment of the effects of formal sun protection education on photosensitive patients. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 29(5):261–265

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Hunter S, Love-Jackson K, Abdulla R et al (2010) Sun protection at elementary schools: a cluster randomized trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 102(7):484–492

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Hutchinson KE, Lipson D, Stephens PJ et al (2013) BRAF fusions define a distinct molecular subset of melanomas with potential sensitivity to MEK inhibition. Clin Cancer Res 19:6696–6702

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. IARC (1992) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans TARC 55: solar and ultraviolet radiation. IARC, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  112. IARC (2012) IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. 100: a review of human carcinogens. Part D: radiation. IARC, Lyon

    Google Scholar 

  113. Iles MM, Law MH, Stacey SN et al (2013) A variant in FTO shows association with melanoma risk not due to BMI. Nat Genet 45:428–432

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Jackson KM, Aiken LS (2006) Evaluation of a multicomponent appearance-based sun-protective intervention for young women: uncovering the mechanisms of program efficacy. Health Psychol 25(1):34

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Jayasekara H, Karahalios E, Thursfield V et al (2009) Season of diagnosis has no effect on survival from malignant melanoma. Int J Cancer 125:488–490

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Jemal A, Devesa SS, Fears TR et al (2000) Cancer surveillance series: changing patterns of cutaneous malignant melanoma mortality rates among whites in the United States. J Natl Cancer Inst 92:811–818

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Jensen P, Hansen S, Moller B et al (1999) Skin cancer in kidney and heart transplant recipients and different long-term immunosuppressive therapy regimens. J Am Acad Dermatol 40:177–186

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Jewell R, Chambers P, Harland M et al (2012) Clinicopathologic features of V600E and V600K melanoma-letter. Clin Cancer Res 18:6792–6793

    Google Scholar 

  119. Kamb A, Shattuck-Eidens D, Eeles R et al (1994) Analysis of the p16 gene (CDKN2) as a candidate for the chromosome 9p melanoma susceptibility locus. Nat Genet 8:23–26

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Kanetsky PA, Panossian S, Elder DE et al (2010) Does MC1R genotype convey information about melanoma risk beyond risk phenotypes? Cancer 116:2416–2428

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Kanetsky PA, Rebbeck TR, Hummer AJ et al (2006) Population-based study of natural variation in the melanocortin-1 receptor gene and melanoma. Cancer Res 66:9330–9337

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Keegan GM, Learmonth ID, Case CP (2008) A systematic comparison of the actual, potential, and theoretical health effects of cobalt and chromium exposures from industry and surgical implants. Crit Rev Toxicol 38(8):645–674. doi:10.1080/10408440701845534

  123. Kendzia B, Behrens T, Jocket KH et al (2013) Welding and lung cancer in a pooled analysis of case-control studies. Am J Epidemiol 178(10):1513–1525

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Kenfield SA, Geller AC, Richter EM et al (2005) Sun protection policies and practices at child care centers in Massachusetts. J Community Health 30(6):491–503

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Kim BH, Glanz K (2013) Text messaging to motivate walking in older African Americans: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Prev Med 44(1):71–75

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Kimlin M, Parisi A (2001) Usage of real-time ultraviolet radiation data to modify the daily erythemal exposure of primary schoolchildren. Photodermatol Photoimmunol Photomed 17(3):130–135

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Knerr S, Schrenk D (2006) Carcinogenicity of “non-dioxinlike” polychlorinated biphenyls. Crit Rev Toxicol 36:663–694

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Krauthammer M, Kong Y, Ha BH et al (2012) Exome sequencing identifies recurrent somatic RAC1 mutations in melanoma. Nat Genet 44:1006–1014

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Kusters-Vandevelde HV, Klaasen A, Kusters B et al (2010) Activating mutations of the GNAQ gene: a frequent event in primary melanocytic neoplasms of the central nervous system. Acta Neuropathol 119:317–323

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Lachiewicz AM, Berwick M, Wiggins CL et al (2008) Epidemiologic support for melanoma heterogeneity using the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results program. J Invest Dermatol 128:1340–1342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Lachiewicz AM, Berwick M, Wiggins CL et al (2008) Survival differences between patients with scalp or neck melanoma and those with melanoma of other sites in the surveillance, epidemiology, and end results (SEER) program. Arch Dermatol 144:515–521

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Ladon D, Doherty A, Newson R et al (2004) Changes in metal levels and chromosome aberrations in the peripheral blood of patients after metal-on-metal hip arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 8(Suppl 3):78–83

    Article  Google Scholar 

  133. Landi MT, Bauer J, Pfeiffer RM et al (2006) MC1R germline variants confer risk for BRAF-mutant melanoma. Science 313:521–522

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Lauby-Secretan B, Loomis D, Bouvard V et al (2013) Carcinogenicity of polychlorinated biphenyls and polybrominated biphenyls. Lancet Onc 14:287–288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Law MH, Macgregor S, Hayward NK (2012) Melanoma genetics: recent findings take us beyond well-traveled pathways. J Invest Dermatol 132:1763–1774

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Lazovich DA, Vogel RI, Berwick M et al (2010) Indoor tanning and risk of melanoma: a case-control study in a highly exposed population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19:1557–1568

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Lazovich D, Vogel RI, Berwick M et al (2012) Melanoma risk in relation to use of sunscreen or other sun protection methods. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20:2583–2593

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. LeMire L, Hollowood K, Gray D et al (2006) Melanomas in renal transplant recipients. Br J Dermatol 154:472–477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Lee JH, Choi JW, Kim YS (2011) Frequencies of BRAF and NRAS mutations are different in histological types and sites of origin of cutaneous melanoma: a meta-analysis. Br J Dermatol 164:776–784

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Lee TK, Rivers JK, Gallagher RP (2005) Site-specific protective effect of broad-spectrum sunscreen on nevus development among white schoolchildren in a randomized trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 52(5):786–792

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Lemish WM, Heenan PJ, Holman CD et al (1983) Survival from preinvasive and invasive malignant melanoma in Western Australia. Cancer 52:580–585

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Linet M, Malker HS, Chow W et al (1995) Occupational risks for cutaneous melanoma among men in Sweden. J Occup Environ Med 37:1127–1135

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Liu KE, Barankin B, Howard J et al (2001) One-year followup on the impact of a sun awareness curriculum on medical students’ knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. JCMS 5(3):193–200

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Liu W, Kelly JW, Trivett M et al (2007) Distinct clinical and pathological features are associated with the BRAF(T1799A(V600E)) mutation in primary melanoma. J Invest Dermatol 127:900–905

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Liu J, Song E, Liu L et al (2012) Polychlorinated biphenyl quinine metabolites lead to oxidative stress in HepG2 cells and the protective role of dihydrolipoic acid. Toxicol In Vitro 26:841–848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Loomis D, Browning SR, Schenck AP et al (1997) Cancer mortality among electric utility workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Occup Environ Med 54:720–728

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Lu YC, Wu YC (1985) Clinical findings and immunological abnormalities in Yu-Cheng patients. Environ Health Perspect 59:17–29

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Luther H, Altmeyer P, Garbe C et al (1996) Increase of melanocytic nevus counts in children during 5 years of follow-up and analysis of associated factors. Arch Dermatol 132(12):1473–1478

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Macgregor S, Montgomery GW, Liu JZ et al (2011) Genome-wide association study identifies a new melanoma susceptibility locus at 1q21.3. Nat Genet 43:1114–1118

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Mahler HI, Kulik JA, Gerrard M et al (2007) Long-term effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection behaviors. Health Psychol 26(3):350–360

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Mahler HI, Kulik JA, Gerrard M et al (2010) Effects of upward and downward social comparison information on the efficacy of an appearance-based sun protection intervention: a randomized, controlled experiment. J Behav Med 33(6):496–507

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Mahler HI, Kulik JA, Gerrard M et al (2013) Effects of photoaging information and UV photo on sun protection intentions and behaviours: a cross-regional comparison. Psychol Health 28(9):1009–1031

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Mahler HI, Kulik JA, Gibbons FX et al (2003) Effects of appearance-based interventions on sun protection intentions and self-reported behaviors. Health Psychol 22(2):199–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Mahler HI, Kulik JA, Harrell J et al (2005) Effects of UV photographs, photoaging information, and use of sunless tanning lotion on sun protection behaviors. Arch Dermatol 141(3):373–380

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Maldonado JL, Fridlyand J, Patel H et al (2003) Determinants of BRAF mutations in primary melanomas. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:1878–1890

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Mar VJ, Wong SQ, Li J et al (2013) BRAF/NRAS wild-type melanomas have a high mutation load correlating with histologic and molecular signatures of UV damage. Clin Cancer Res 19:4589–4598

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Marabini L, Calo R, Fucile S (2011) Genotoxic effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB 153, 138, 101, 118) in a fish cell line (RTG-2). Toxicol In Vitro 25:1045–1052

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Markovic S, Erickson L, Rao R et al (2007) Malignant melanoma in the 21st century, part 1: epidemiology, risk factors, screening, prevention and diagnosis. Mayo Clin Proc 82:365–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  159. Marks R (2002) Epidemiology of melanoma. Clin Exp Dermatol 25:459–463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Masaki T, Wang Y, Digiovanna JJ et al (2014) High frequency of PTEN mutations in nevi and melanomas from xeroderma pigmentosum patients. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 27:454–464

    Google Scholar 

  161. Mazzuckelli LF, Schulte PA (1993) Notification of workers about an excess of malignant melanoma. Am J Ind Med 23:85–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. McFarland VA, Clarke JU (1989) Environmental occurrence, abundance, and potential toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyl congeners: considerations for a congener-specific analysis. Environ Health Perspect 81:225–239

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. McLaughlin JK, Malker HS, Blot WJ et al (1988) Malignant melanoma in the printing industry. Am J Ind Med 13:301–304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Menzies AM, Haydu LE, Visintin L et al (2012) Distinguishing clinicopathologic features of patients with V600E and V600K BRAF-mutant metastatic melanoma. Clin Cancer Res 18:3242–3249

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Meyle KD, Guldberg P (2009) Genetic risk factors for melanoma. Hum Genet 126:499–510

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Meyskens FL, Berwick M (2008) UV or not UV: metals are the answer. Cancer Epidemiol Bio Prev 17:268–270

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Meyskens FL, Yang S (2011) Thinking about the role (largely ignored) of heavy metals in cancer prevention: hexavalent chromium and melanoma as case in point. Recent Results Cancer Res 188:65–74

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Miller DR, Geller AC, Wood MC et al (1999) The Falmouth safe skin project: evaluation of a community program to promote sun protection in youth. Health Educ Behav 26(3):369–384

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Milne E, Jacoby P, Giles-Corti B et al (2006) The impact of the Kidskin sun protection intervention on summer suntan and reported sun exposure: was it sustained? Prev Med 42(1):14–20

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Milne E, Simpson JA, Johnston R et al (2007) Time spent outdoors at midday and children’s body mass index. Am J Public Health 97(2):306–310

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Moore DH, Patterson WH, Hatch F et al (1997) Case-control study of malignant melanoma among employees of the Laurence Livermore National Laboratory. Am J Ind Med 32:377–391

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Morales Suárez-Varela M, Llopis-González A, Lacasaña-Navarro M et al (1990) Trends in malignant skin melanoma and other skin cancers in Spain, 1975–1983, and their relation to solar radiation intensity. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol 10:245–253

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Moysich KB, Mendola P, Schisterman EF et al (1999) An evaluation of proposed frameworks for grouping polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congener data into meaningful analytic units. Am J Ind Med 35:223–231

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Nakanishi Y, Shigematsu N, Kurita Y et al (1985) Respiratory involvement and immune status in yusho patients. Environ Health Perspect 59:31–36

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Naldi L, Chatenoud L, Bertuccio P et al (2007) Improving sun-protection behavior among children: results of a cluster-randomized trial in Italian elementary schools. The “SoleSi SoleNo-GISED” Project. J Invest Dermatol 127(8):1871–1877

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. National Toxicology Program (2006) NTP Toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 3.3′, 4.4′, 5 pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126) in female Harlan Sprague-Dawley rats (Gavage studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser 520:244–246

    Google Scholar 

  177. National Toxicology Program (2010) NTP toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 2.3′, 4.4′, 5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB118) in female Harlan Sprague-Dawley rats (Gavage studies). Natl Toxicol Program Tech Rep Ser 559:1–174

    Google Scholar 

  178. Nelemans PJ, Rampen FHJ, Ruiter DJ et al (1995) An addition to the controversy on sunlight exposure and melanoma risk: a meta-analytical approach. J Clin Epidemiol 48:1331–1342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Nelemans PJ, Scholte R, Groenendal H et al (1993) Melanoma and occupation-results of a case-control study in Netherlands. Br J Ind Med 50:642–646

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Nelson JA (1974) Effects of DDT analogues and PCB mixtures on 17-beta estradiol binding to the rat uterine receptor. Biochem Pharmacol 23:447–451

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Newton-Bishop JA, Beswick S, Randerson-Moor J et al (2009) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels are associated with Breslow thickness at presentation and survival from melanoma. J Clin Oncol 27:5339–5344

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Nicol I, Gaudy C, Gouvernet J et al (2007) Skin protection by sunscreens is improved by explicit labeling and providing free sunscreen. J Invest Dermatol 127(1):41–48

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Nielsen H, Henriksen L, Olsen JH (1996) Malignant melanoma among lithographers. Scand J Work Environ Health 22:108–111

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Nielsen K, Måsbäck A, Olsson H et al (2012) A prospective population-based study of 40,000 women regarding host factors, UV exposure and sunbed use in relation to risk and anatomic site of cutaneous melanoma. Int J Cancer 42:319–324

    Google Scholar 

  185. Nilsen LT, Aalerud TN, Hannevik M et al (2011) UVB and UVA irradiances from indoor tanning devices. Photochem Photobiol Sci 10(7):1129–1136. doi:10.1039/c1pp05029j

  186. Olsen CM, Zens MS, Green AC et al (2011) Biologic markers of sun exposure and melanoma risk in women: pooled case-control analysis. Int J Cancer 129:713–723

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD et al (1996) Effects of a combination of beta carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 334(18):1150–1155

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Onega T, Baron J, MacKenzie T et al (2006) Cancer after total joint arthroplasty: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15(8):1532–1537

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. O’Riordan DL, Lunde KB, Steffen AD et al (2006) Validity of beachgoers’ self-report of their sun habits. Arch Dermatol 142(10):1304–1311

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Pagoto S, McChargue D, Fuqua RW (2003) Effects of a multicomponent intervention on motivation and sun protection behaviors among midwestern beachgoers. Health Psychol 22(4):429

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Pagoto SL, Schneider KL, Oleski J et al (2010) The sunless study: a beach randomized trial of a skin cancer prevention intervention promoting sunless tanning. Arch Dermatol 146(9):979

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Parkin DM, Mesher D, Sasieni P (2011) Cancers attributable to solar (ultraviolet) radiation exposure in the UK 2010. Br J Dermatol 105:S66–S69

    Google Scholar 

  193. Pleasance ED, Cheetham RK, Stephens PJ et al (2010) A comprehensive catalogue of somatic mutations from a human cancer genome. Nature 463:191–196

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. Pollock PM, Harper UL, Hansen KS et al (2003) High frequency of BRAF mutations in nevi. Nat Genet 33:19–20

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Poynter JN, Elder JT, Fullen DR et al (2006) BRAF and NRAS mutations in melanoma and melanocytic nevi. Melanoma Res 16:267–273

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Pukkala E, Aspholm R, Auvinen A et al (2002) Incidence of cancer among Nordic airline pilots over five decades: occupational cohort study. Br Med J 325:567–569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  197. Pukkala E, Auvinen A, Wahlberg G et al (1995) Incidence of cancer among Finnish airline cabin attendants 1967–1992. Br Med J 311:649–652

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Purdue MP, Hoppin JA, Blair A et al (2006) Occupational exposures to organochlorine insecticides and cancer incidence in the agricultural health study. Int J Cancer 120:642–649

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Quereux G, Nguyen JM, Volteau C et al (2009) Prospective trial on a school-based skin cancer prevention project. Eur J Cancer Prev 18(2):133–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Van Raamsdonk CD, Griewank KG, Crosby MB et al (2010) Mutations in GNA11 in uveal melanoma. N Engl J Med 363:2191–2199

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  201. Raimondi S, Sera F, Gandini S et al (2008) MC1R variants, melanoma and red hair color phenotype: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 122:2753–2760

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. Roberts DC, Black D (2009) Comparison of interventions to reduce sun exposure. Behav Med 35(2):67–76

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  203. Robinson CF, Petersen M, Palu S (1999) Mortality patterns among electrical workers employed in the U.S. construction industry. Am J Ind Med 36:630–637

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. Robinson PE1, Mack GA, Remmers J et al (1990) Trends of PCB, hexachlorobenzene, and betabenzene hexachloride levels in the adipose tissue of the U.S. population. Environ Res 53:175–92

    Google Scholar 

  205. Roetzheim RG, Love-Jackson KM, Hunter SG et al (2011) A cluster randomized trial of sun protection at elementary schools: results from year 2. Am J Prev Med 41(6):615–618

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. Rosso S, Sera F, Segnan N et al (2008) Sun exposure prior to diagnosis is associated with improved survival in melanoma patients: results from a long-term follow-up study of Italian patients. Eur J Cancer 44:1275–1281

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  207. Ruder AM, Hein MJ, Nilsen N et al (2006) Mortality among workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in an electrical capacitor manufacturing plant in Indiana: an update. Environ Health Perspect 114:18–23

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. Ruder AM, Hein MJ, Hopf NB et al (2014) Mortality among 24,865 workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in three electrical capacitor manufacturing plants: a ten-year update. Int J Hyg Environ Health 217(2-3):176–187. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2013.04.006

  209. Safe S (1993) Toxicology, structure-function relationship, and human and environmental health impacts of polychlorinated biphenyls: progress and problems. Environ Health Perspect 100:259–268

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Sagebiel RW (1993) Melanocytic nevi in histologic association with primary cutaneous melanoma of superficial spreading and nodular types: effect of tumor thickness. J Invest Dermatol 100:322S324S

    Google Scholar 

  211. Sarna T, Schwartz HA (2006) The physical properties of melanin. In: Nordlund JJ, Boissy R, Hearing VJ et al (eds) The pigmentary system, 2nd edn. Blackwell Publishing, New York

    Google Scholar 

  212. Scherer D, Rachakonda PS, Angelini S et al (2010) Association between the germline MC1R variants and somatic BRAF/NRAS mutations in melanoma tumors. J Invest Dermatol 130:2844–2848

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  213. Schuz N, Eid M (2013) Beyond the usual suspects: target group- and behavior-specific factors add to a theory-based sun protection intervention for teenagers. J Behav Med 36(5):508–519

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  214. Seidler A, Janichen S, Hegewaled J et al (2013) Systematic review and quantification of respiratory cancer risk from occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 86(8):957–960

    Article  Google Scholar 

  215. Shekar SN, Duffy DL, Youl P et al (2009) A population-based study of Australian twins with melanoma suggests a strong genetic contribution to liability. J Invest Dermatol 129:2211–2219

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  216. Shipman AR, Clark AB, Levell NJ (2011) Summier European countries have lower melanoma mortality. Clin Exp Dermatol 36:544–547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Shoveller JA, Lovato CY (2001) Measuring self-reported sunburn: challenges and recommendations. Chronic Dis Can 22(3–4):83–98

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Sigurdson AJ, Doody MM, Rao RS et al (2003) Cancer incidence in the US radiology technologists health study 1983–1988. Cancer 97:3080–3089

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Silberhorn EM, Glauert HP, Robertson LW (1990) Carcinogenicity of polyhalogenated biphenyls: PCBs and PBBs. Crit Rev Toxicol 20:440–496

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  220. Sinks T, Steele G, Smith AB et al (1992) Mortality among workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Am J Epidemiol 136:389–398

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Skender-Kalnenas TM, English DR, Hennan PJ (1995) Benign melanocytic lesions: risk markers or precursors of cutaneous melanoma? J Am Acad Dermatol 33:1000–1007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  222. Smith AJ, Dieppe P, Porter M et al (2012) Risk of cancer in first seven years after metal-on-metal hip replacement compared with other bearings and general population: linkage study between the National Joint Registry of England and Wales and hospital episode statistics. Brit Med. doi:10.1136/bmj.e2383

    Google Scholar 

  223. Stadelmeyer E, Heitzer E, Resel M et al (2014) The BRAF V600 K mutation is more frequent than the BRAF V600E mutation in melanoma in situ of lentigo maligna type. J Invest Dermatol 134:548–550

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Teta J, Schnatter R, Ott GM et al (1990) Mortality surveillance in a large chemical company: the Union Carbide Corporation experience. Am J Ind Med 17:435–447

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Thieden E, Philipsen PA, Sandby-Moller J et al (2005) Sunburn related to UV radiation exposure, age, sex, occupation, and sun bed use based on time-stamped personal dosimetry and sun behavior diaries. Arch Dermatol 141(4):482–488

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  226. Thomas NE, Alexander A, Edmiston SN et al (2004) Tandem BRAF mutations in primary invasive melanomas. J Invest Dermatol 122:1245–1250

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  227. Thomas NE, Berwick M, Cordeiro-Stone M (2006) Could BRAF mutations in melanocytic lesions arise from DNA damage induced by ultraviolet radiation? J Invest Dermatol 126:1693–1696

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Thomas NE, Edmiston SN, Alexander A et al (2007) Number of nevi and early-life ambient UV exposure are associated with BRAF-mutant melanoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16:991–997

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  229. Tierney P, Ferguson J, Ibbotson S et al (2013) Nine out of 10 sunbeds in England emit ultraviolet radiation levels that exceed current safety limits. Br J Dermatol 168(3):602–608. doi:10.1111/bjd.12181

  230. Tucker M, Goldstein A (2003) Melanoa etiology: where are we? Oncogene 22:3042–3052

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  231. Uribe P, Wistuba II, Gonzalez S (2009) Allelotyping, microsatellite instability, and BRAF mutation analyses in common and atypical melanocytic nevi and primary cutaneous melanomas. Am J Dermatopathol 31:354–363

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Valverde P, Healy E, Sikkink S et al (1996) The Asp84Glu variant of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is associated with melanoma. Hum Mol Genet 5:1663–1666

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  233. Veierød MB, Adami HO, Lund E et al (2010) Sun and solarium exposure and melanoma risk: the effects of age, pigmentary characteristics and nevi. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 19:111–120

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Viros A, Fridlyand J, Bauer J et al (2008) Improving melanoma classification by integrating genetic and morphologic features. PLoS Med 5:e120

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Visuri TI, Pukkala E, Pulkkinen P et al (2006) Cancer incidence and causes of death among total hip replacement patients: a review based on Nordic cohorts with a special emphasis on metal-on-metal bearings. Proc Inst Mech Eng H 220(2):399–407

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Vuong K, McGeechan K, Armstrong BK et al (2013) Occupational sun exposure and risk of melanoma according to anatomical site. Int J Cancer. doi:10.1002/ijc.28603

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  237. Walkosz BJ, Buller DB, Andersen PA et al (2008) Increasing sun protection in winter outdoor recreation: a theory-based health communication program. Am J Prev Med 34(6):502–509

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  238. Wang JX, Zhang LA, Li BX et al (2002) Cancer incidence and risk estimate among medical X-ray workers in China 1950–1995. Health Phys 82:455–466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  239. Wei X, Walia V, Lin JC et al (2011) Exome sequencing identifies GRIN2A as frequently mutated in melanoma. Nat Genet 43:442–446

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  240. Wesseling C, Antich D, Hogstedt C et al (1999) Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure. Int J Epidemiol 28:365–374

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Whiteman DC, Pavan WJ, Bastian BC (2011) The melanomas: a synthesis of epidemiological, clinical, histopathological, genetic, and biological aspects, supporting distinct subtypes, causal pathways, and cells of origin. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 24:879–897

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  242. Whiteman D, Watt P, Purdie D et al (2003) Melanocytic nevi, solar keratosis, and divergent pathways to cutaneous melanoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 95:806–812

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  243. Williams PF, Olsen CM, Hayward NK et al (2011) Melanocortin-1-receptor and risk of cutaneous melanoma: a meta-analysis and estimates of population burden. Int J Cancer 129:1730–1740

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  244. Williams LH, Shors AR, Barlow WE et al (2011) Identifying persons at highest risk of melanoma using self-assessed risk factors. J Clin Exp Dermatol Res 2

    Google Scholar 

  245. Winther JF, Ulbak K, Dreyer L et al (1997) Avoidable cancers in the Nordic countries. Radiation APMIS Suppl 76:83–99

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Wollina U, Heim C, Bennewitz A et al (2014) Interventional three-year longitudinal study of melanocytic naevus development in pre-school children in Dresden. Saxony Acta Derm Venereol 94(1):63–67

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Woolley T, Lowe J, Raasch B et al (2008) Workplace sun protection policies and employees’ sun-related skin damage. Am J Health Behav 32(2):201–208

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Wright WE, Peters JM, Mack TM (1983) Organic chemicals and malignant melanoma. Am J Ind Med 4:577–581

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Yokoyama S, Woods SL, Boyle GM et al (2011) A novel recurrent mutation in MITF predisposes to familial and sporadic melanoma. Nature 480:99–103

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  250. Zeeb H, Belttner M, Hammer GP et al (2002) Cohort mortality study of German cockpit crew 1960–1997. Epidemiology 13:693–699

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Zeidler-Erdely PC, Meighan TG, Erdely A et al (2013) Lung tumor promotion by chromium-containing welding particulate matter in a mouse model. Part Fibre Toxicol 5:10–45

    Google Scholar 

  252. Zielinski JM, Garner MJ, Krewski D et al (2005) Decreases in occupational exposure to ionizing radiation among Canadian dental workers. J Can Dent Assoc 71:29–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  253. Zuk O, Hechter E, Sunyaev SR et al (2012) The mystery of missing heritability: genetic interactions create phantom heritability. PNAS 109:1193–1198

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Internal Medicine, University of New Mexico, MSC10-5550, Albuquerque, NM, 87131-0001, USA

    Marianne Berwick

  2. Klein Buendel, Inc., 1667 Cole Boulevard, Suite 225, Golden, CO, 80401, USA

    David B. Buller

  3. Sydney School of Public Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Level 6, 119-143 Missenden Road, Camperdown, NSW, 2050, Australia

    Anne Cust

  4. Cancer Control Research Program, BC Cancer Agency, 675 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC, V5Z 1L3, Canada

    Richard Gallagher & Tim K. Lee

  5. Public Health and Epidemiology, University of California, Irvine, USA

    Frank Meyskens

  6. Mount Sinai School of Medicine, One Gustave L. Levy Place, New York, NY, 10029, USA

    Shaily Pandey

  7. University of North Carolina, 413 Mary Ellen Jones Bldg. CB#7287, Chapel Hill, NC, 275992, USA

    Nancy E. Thomas

  8. Department of Biostatistics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, P.O. Box 1122 Blindern, 0317, Oslo, Norway

    Marit B. Veierød

  9. Centre for Genetic Origins of Health and Disease (GOHaD), The University of Western Australia, M409, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA, 6009, Australia

    Sarah Ward

Authors
  1. Marianne Berwick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David B. Buller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Anne Cust
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Richard Gallagher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Tim K. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Frank Meyskens
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Shaily Pandey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Nancy E. Thomas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Marit B. Veierød
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Sarah Ward
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marianne Berwick .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New York, USA

    Howard L. Kaufman

  2. Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers Cancer Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA

    Janice M. Mehnert

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Berwick, M. et al. (2016). Melanoma Epidemiology and Prevention. In: Kaufman, H., Mehnert, J. (eds) Melanoma. Cancer Treatment and Research, vol 167. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22539-5_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22539-5_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-22538-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-22539-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation